No / In two experiments, we investigated whether having prior experience of objects influenced young children's ability to solve a metacognitive search task, based on the objects' perceptual properties. In Experiment 1, 100 children (mean age 77months) chose whether to look or feel to locate one of two hidden balls (identifiable by sight or touch). Before choosing, children were told about the balls' perceptual properties (i.e. their colour and feel'), and/or saw and touched them, or had no pre-trial experience of them at all. Children who only had self-directed contact with the balls performed best, but children who heard the objects described by an adult performed relatively poorly. In Experiment 2, 116 children (mean age 72months) either heard only relevant, relevant and irrelevant, or no information about the objects before completing the task. Verbal descriptions of the balls (whether or not they contained irrelevant information) caused children difficulties.

Yes / Objectives To examine the impact of memory accessibility on episodic future thinking. Design Single-case study of neurological patient HCM and an age-matched comparison group of neurologically Healthy Controls. Methods We administered a full battery of tests assessing general intelligence, memory, and executive functioning. To assess autobiographical memory, the Autobiographical Memory Interview (Kopelman, Wilson, & Baddeley, 1990. The Autobiographical Memory Interview. Bury St. Edmunds, UK: Thames Valley Test Company) was administered. The Past Episodic and Future Episodic sections of Dalla Barba's Confabulation Battery (Dalla Barba, 1993, Cogn. Neuropsychol., 1, 1) and a specifically tailored Mental Time Travel Questionnaire were administered to assess future thinking in HCM and age-matched controls. Results HCM presented with a deficit in forming new memories (anterograde amnesia) and recalling events from before the onset of neurological impairment (retrograde amnesia). HCM's autobiographical memory impairments are characterized by a paucity of memories from Recent Life. In comparison with controls, two features of his future thoughts are apparent: Reduced episodic future thinking and outdated content of his episodic future thoughts. Conclusions This article suggests neuropsychologists should look beyond popular conceptualizations of the past–future relation in amnesia via focussing on reduced future thinking. Investigating both the quantity and quality of future thoughts produced by amnesic patients may lead to developments in understanding the complex nature of future thinking disorders resulting from memory impairments. / Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds

No / There is clear evidence of a deficit in episodic memory for older adults compared to younger adults. Using an intertrial technique previous research has investigated whether this deficit can be attributed to a decline in encoding or consolidation. On standard memory tests, these two aspects of memory function can be measured by examining the items forgotten or acquired across multiple learning trials. The present study assessed whether age deficits in episodic memory were affected by stimulus characteristics, specifically age of acquisition (AoA). A standard intertrial design was implemented whereby participants studied word lists over several study-test trials. The stimulus characteristics of AoA were manipulated using a pure-list technique. Our findings showed that older adults demonstrate an overall recall deficit which appeared to be a consequence of both an encoding deficit and consolidation weakness. Earlier-acquired words were recalled significantly better than later-acquired words and this was apparently due to both enhanced encoding and consolidation of earlier- over later-acquired words. The key finding is that older adults show a recall advantage for earlier- compared to later-acquired words over the entire experiment to a greater degree than younger adults.

Episodic memories are neurally coded records of personally experienced events across a lifetime. These records are encoded via medial temporal lobe structures in the brain, including the hippocampus, and are commonly called "representations" or "memory traces". Existing studies indicate that information about the neural signal corresponding to a memory representation can be found in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data when the pattern across its smallest units (voxels, often 3mm3 sections of the brain) is measured. Many prior studies have measured these voxel patterns in response to stimuli as if they are a spontaneous brain function, regardless of cognitive factors. These studies sometimes find that similarity in the voxel patterns across repetition of a to-be-remembered event predicts later memory retrieval, but the results are inconsistent. The current fMRI study investigated the possibility that cognitive goals during encoding affect the type of neural representation (voxel pattern) that will later support memory retrieval. This seems likely because prior behavioral studies indicate that cognitive variability across repetitions of an event benefits later memory retrieval, which is difficult to reconcile with the common finding that voxel pattern variability across repetitions of an event harms later memory. We tested this hypothesis by comparing voxel patterns that support later memory retrieval to those associated with forgotten items in the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, and lateral occipital cortex. Overall, as previously demonstrated, the behavioral results showed that exposure to variable cognitive goals across repetition of events during encoding benefited subsequent memory retrieval. Voxel patterns in the hippocampus indicated a significant interaction between cognitive goals (variable vs. consistent) and memory (remembered vs. forgotten) such that less voxel pattern similarity for the repeated events with variable cognitive goals, but not consistent cognitive goals, supported later memory success. In other words, variable hippocampal neural activations for the same events under different cognitive goals predicted better later memory performance. However, there was no significant interaction in neural pattern similarity between cognitive goals and memory success in medial temporal cortices or lateral occipital lobe. Instead, higher similarity in voxel patterns in right medial temporal cortices was associated with later memory retrieval, regardless of cognitive goals. In the lateral occipital lobe, the main effects of cognitive goals, hemisphere, and memory success were found but no interactions. In conclusion, we found that the relationship between pattern similarity and memory success in the hippocampus (but not the medial temporal lobe cortex) changes when the cognitive goal during encoding does or does not vary across repetitions of the event. / Master of Science / Episodic memory is a long-term memory of personal experiences which are encoded via the medial temporal lobe in the brain, primarily in the hippocampus. The records of personal experiences in these areas are commonly called "patterns", "representations", or "memory traces". Prior investigations indicate that the way of measuring the neural signals corresponding to personal events is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The brain images taken by an fMRI scanner represent the patterns of the smallest unit (voxels, often 3mm3 sections of the brain). Many prior investigations of episodic memory used the voxel patterns but showed mixed results in whether similarity in the voxel patterns across repetition of a repeated event leads to subsequent memory retrieval. One of the possible explanations for mixed results is that the cognitive factors during encoding were neglected. Therefore, the current fMRI study examined how cognitive goals during encoding influence the voxel patterns that later support memory retrieval. During encoding, participants were shown an image repeated with the same or different questions and answered the question on the screen in an fMRI scanner. After 10 days, they were invited to the item memory test on the images that they were given during the encoding phase. The voxel patterns in the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, and the lateral occipital lobe were compared across the repetitions of each image. The behavioral results showed that variable cognitive goals across repeated events during encoding benefited later memory retrieval. Furthermore, less similar voxel patterns in the hippocampus for the images repeated with different questions, but not the same questions, during encoding predicted better later memory success. In the right medial temporal cortices, higher similarity in voxel patterns was significantly associated with later memory retrieval, regardless of cognitive goals. In the lateral occipital lobe, higher voxel pattern similarity was found in the right hemisphere, for images repeated with the same question, and for images successfully retrieved later. In conclusion, we found that the relationship between voxel pattern similarity and memory success in the hippocampus (but not the medial temporal lobe cortex) changes when the cognitive goal during encoding does or does not vary across repetitions of the event.

Navigation and episodic memory are both fundamental cognitive processes that rely on the hippocampus and its connections to other cortical areas. However, the extent and nature of their interdependence is unclear. We investigated how they relate by testing children (8-13 years, i.e., over the age at which skills are refined towards adult levels) and young adults using a real-world encoding experience, and multiple tests of spatial and episodic memory. We found that the measures formed two latent factors. The memory structure factor included measures that require simultaneously representing all or part of the environment (finding routes, mapping the space, free recall of the experience, and spatial-temporal recognition). The perceptual/factual/locale factor included perceptual and semantic recognition along with JRD (which taxes egocentric and allocentric navigation). Univariate BOLD analysis identified a neural architecture that supports representations across both factors: right hippocampus (HC), lateral occipital area (LO), and entorhinal (ERC), perirhinal (PRC), and parahippocampal (PHC) cortices. Pattern analysis revealed that stable similarity of encoded representations in the anterior right HC related to better performance on the memory structure factor. Stable differentiation of encoded representations in the ERC related to better performance for both factors. Additionally, we found a developmental timeline that extends into early adolescence for spatial representations in the ERC and PRC and for stability of encoded information in the LO. In sum, we found that episodic memory and spatial representations are intertwined in the real world, in which humans seldom operate only spatially or only episodically. / Psychology

This research was designed to explore autobiographical memory in children, specifically, the personal events involved in memory and memory failures and to what extent children and adults realize what they have forgotten. Since previous research in this domain has focused mainly on adult's or children's ability to recall past events, few have ventured to investigate what underlies the process of forgetting for everyday events in parents and children, and if a link exists between the two. Survey data pertaining to self-reported memory failures along with information on the amount of interaction between parents and children was collected from parents and children at a local elementary school. The results showed that children and parents were more likely to report failure in prospective memory (forgetting to do something) than retrospective memory (forgetting something they already knew). Additionally, when asked what they thought had caused the failure, children were more likely to attribute the lapse to external distractions. Finally, the data showed that the degree of parent-child interaction was significantly related to the detail provided in a child's reported memory failures. The results are discussed in the context of developing a better understanding of, and suggest future avenues for, research in memory and memory failures in children, as well as understanding the relation between parent/child memory.

The present study examined the possibility that reading books might support declarative memory, and potentially contribute to the cognitive reserve and thereby minimize age-related decline in memory functions. It was a crosssectional study, where data were taken from 566 Betula Study participants, as well as the scores of declarative memory assessment tasks, and book reading reports. The tasks of episodic memory were sentence learning with and without encoding enactment –free and cued recall. The tasks of semantic memory were word fluency, initial letter A, M fivewords, B profession names, and SRB –vocabulary. Three-way analysis of variance was performed for hypothesis testing. The results showed that book reading might support declarative memory. There was a significant relationship between education and book reading. Was not found if book reading might minimize age-related decline. In conclusion, the study showed that book reading and years of education might support declarative memory. / Denna studie undersökte om läsandet av böcker stödjer deklarativt minne, och eventuellt främjar den kognitivareserven, vilket medför en minimerad åldersbaserad reduktion i minnesfunktioner. I denna tvärsnittsstudie ingick datafrån 566 deltagare i Betulaprojektet som testats med avseende på deklarativa minnesfunktioner, samt enlitteraturanalys. Utvärderingarna som baserades på episodiskt minne var; menings-inlärning med och utan 'encodingenactment' -både fri och stödd återgivning. Test av semantiskt minne var ordflöde med första bokstav A, M fem-ord,B yrkesnamn, och SRB-ordförråd. Tre-vägs variansanalyer genomfördes för hypotestestning. Resultaten visade på enkoppling mellan utbildning och läsandet av böcker. Det är dock fortfarande oklart om läsandet av böcker minimeraråldersbaserad minnes-reducering. Sammanfattningsvis, visade studien att läsning och utbildning kan stödja deklarativtminne.

Background Obesity and associated metabolic dysregulation are linked to impaired cognitive function and alterations in brain structure, which increases the risk of age-related dementia. Increased glucocorticoid (GC) exposure may be a potential mediator of these negative effects on the brain. Methods and results In paper 1, we tested the relationship between cortisol levels, brain morphology and cognitive function in 200 women and men. Salivary cortisol levels were negatively related to cortical surface areas in prefrontal brain regions in both sexes. In participants with type 2 diabetes, high salivary cortisol levels were associated with lower memory performance. In paper 2, we tested in 70 overweight women the effects on tissue-specific GC metabolism of a Paleolithic diet or a diet following the Nordic nutrition recommendations. The 24-month interventions led to decreased expression of the GC-activating enzyme 11βHSD1 in adipose tissue, interpreted as a normalization of an obesity-related disturbance in GC metabolism. Furthermore, GC metabolism by 5α-reductase increased substantially after 2 years, an unexpected and novel result. The outcomes did not differ by diet. In paper 3, 20 women included in paper 2 were examined with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while performing a memory task at baseline and after 6 months. Memory performance improved and functional brain responses increased in the hippocampus. Once again, the results were similar in both diet groups. In paper 4, 24 overweight participants with type 2 diabetes were examined with fMRI, using the same memory test as in paper 3, at baseline and after 12 weeks of intervention with a Paleolithic diet with or without exercise training. Functional brain response increased in the hippocampus, but memory was not improved. The addition of physical exercise did not alter the results. Conclusion Cortisol levels are linked to prefrontal brain structure and, at least in type 2 diabetes, lower memory performance. Furthermore, the dysregulated GC metabolism in obesity can be reversed by long-term diet- induced weight loss. Finally, dietary interventions with associated metabolic improvements alter functional brain responses during memory testing, including increased activation of the hippocampus. Whether these changes are linked to alterations in GC exposure and mediate improved cognition requires further study.

INTRODUÇÃO: A memória autobiográfica é um tipo de memória episódica, que abrange os aspectos perceptuais, afetivos e espaço-temporais de um evento. Tais aspectos são organizados em representações que compõem uma história pessoal, sendo portanto fundamentais para a formação da identidade. Esse tipo de lembrança é uma construção transitória e dinâmica gerada a partir de uma base de conhecimento subjacente e esta base é armazenada em diferentes níveis de especificidade de detalhes. Por possuir grande conteúdo episódico, que é dependente das regiões frontais e temporomediais, áreas cerebrais conhecidas por sofrerem alterações significativas com o avanço da idade, é um sistema de memória que parece apresentar declínio com o avanço da idade. O presente estudo procurou investigar a relação entre a memória autobiográfica e o envelhecimento em 57 voluntários saudáveis, que foram divididos em dois grupos: adultos jovens (18 a 50 anos) e adultos mais velhos (51 a 75 anos). METODOLOGIA: A investigação utilizou uma entrevista de memória autobiográfica constituída de 5 eventos públicos marcantes (flashbulb memories), 4 estímulos de valência (positiva e negativa) e 1 evento importante ocorrido no último ano. As entrevistas foram avaliadas e pontuadas de acordo com sistema de categorização dos detalhes relatados em episódicos e semânticos. Também foi usada uma bateria de testes neuropsicológicos composta por 7 testes agrupados em 5 domínios cognitivos destinados a avaliar respectivamente: velocidade de processamento da informação, memória verbal, memória visual, funções executivas e funcionamento intelectual, para examinar possível déficits nesses domínios e suas correlações com o desempenho na entrevista autobiográfica. O nível de significância foi de p < 0.05. RESULTADOS: Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre os dois grupos na avaliação de memória autobiográfica, com sujeitos lembrando-se de quantidades semelhantes de detalhes episódicos. Tanto eventos de valência positiva como negativa foram lembrados com a mesma qualidade. Houve uma tendência a um pior desempenho de pessoas mais velhas para relatar lembranças pessoais recentes (que ocorreram no último ano). O grupo mais velho teve pior desempenho em atividades de velocidade de processamento, flexibilidade mental, controle inibitório, memória episódica verbal e memória visual. Foi observada uma correlação positiva entre o desempenho em tarefa padronizada de memória verbal episódica e a quantidade de detalhes episódicos na entrevista de memória autobiográfica. Houve uma relação inversa entre a quantidade de eventos episódicos relatados e a velocidade de processamento de informações apenas no grupo de adultos jovens. Não foram observadas correlações entre os demais domínios cognitivos e os resultados na atividade de memória autobiográfica. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados obtidos sugerem que as memórias autobiográficas são mais resistentes aos efeitos do tempo. Eventos que têm importante significado pessoal e grande conteúdo emocional aparentam ficar bem preservados na memória / INTRODUCTION: The autobiographical memory is a kind of episodic memory that covers an event\'s aspects of perception, affection, space and time. These are organized in representations that make up a personal history. Therefore, they are paramount to the creation of identity. This type of memory is a transitory and dynamic construction, generated from a foundation of subjacent knowledge stored in details that are specific on different levels. Because it has a vast episodic content, that is dependent of the frontal and temporal medial regions (areas of the brain known for suffering meaningful changes with the aging process), it is a memory system that apparently shows decline with the aging process. This study sought to investigate the relationship between autobiographical memory and aging in 57 healthy subjects that were divided into two groups: young adults (18 to 50 years old) and seniors (51 to 75 years old). METHOD: The investigation used an autobiographical memory interview made up of 5 memorable public events (flashbulb memories), 4 valence stimuli (positive and negative) and 1 important event that happened in the last year. The interviews were evaluated and scored according to the sorting system of details determined either as episodic or semantic. A battery of neuropsychological tests was also used, it was constituted of 7 tests grouped in 5 cognitive domains destined to evaluate, respectively: processing speed, verbal memory, visual memory, executive functions and intellectual performance, to examine possible deficits in these domains and its correlation to the performance in the autobiographical interview. The level of significance was of p < 0.05. RESULTS: There were no meaningful differences between groups in the evaluation of autobiographical memory. Subjects remembered similar amounts of episodic details. Events of both negative and positive valence were recalled with the same quality. In seniors, a tendency towards a worse performance was found when they were asked to tell recent personal memories (that happened last year). The results demonstrate age-related difficulties in activities of speed processing, mental flexibility, inhibitory control, episodic verbal memory and visual memory. A positive correlation was found between the performance in a standardized episodic verbal memory task and the amount of episodic details in the autobiographical memory interview. There was a reverse relation between the amount of episodic events told and the speed of processing information only in the young adults group. No correlations were found between the other cognitive domains and the results in the autobiographical memory activity. CONCLUSION: The obtained results suggest that autobiographical memories are more resistant to the effects of time. Events that have important personal meaning and great emotional content seem to be well preserved in memory

Transcription and translation of proteins are required for the consolidation of episodic memory. Arc, an effector immediate early gene, has been linked to synaptic plasticity following learning and memory. It is well established that the rodent hippocampus is essential for processing spatial memory, but its role in processing object memory is a point of contention. Using immunohistochemical techniques, hippocampal sections were stained for arc proteins in the CA1 region of the dorsal hippocampus in mice following two variations of the novel object recognition (NOR) task. Results suggest mice that acquired strong object memory showed significant hippocampal activation. In mice that acquired weak object memory, hippocampal activation was not significantly different from controls. Arc expression was also examined in other hippocampal sub-regions, as well as in the perirhinal cortex. These results suggest that the mice must acquire a threshold amount of object information before the hippocampal CA1 region is engaged. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.A.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2015 / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection