Dans le cadre d’une réduction d’émission de gaz à effets de serre, la possibilité d’introduire une quantité de biodiesel dans les diesels dits « traditionnels », c’est-à-dire issus des énergies fossiles est une possibilité envisagée par les groupes pétroliers. Cependant, la connaissance des propriétés thermophysiques des fluides sous pression est mince, que ce soient des mélanges ou des corps purs, où peu de données expérimentales existent. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, une nouvelle sonde de mesures des propriétés acoustiques sous pression a été développée dans le but de réaliser des mesures de toutes les propriétés thermophysiques en utilisant un volume d’échantillon minimum grâce à la fois, à une technique de mesure de vitesse du son via l’utilisation de transducteurs piézoélectriques et de viscosité via l’utilisation de cristaux de quartz. Si cette thèse s’inscrit dans une démarche visant à travailler sur les biodiesels et leurs corps purs, la sonde développée au cours de ces trois ans est amenée à être expérimentée dans un avenir proche, sur des fluides directement issus de champs pétroliers et/ou de synthèses, sous pression afin de déterminer des propriétés thermophysiques mais également des équilibres de phase sous pression. / Key words : speed of sound, compressibility, density, viscosity, biodiesel, methyl and ethyl esters, pressure.In the context of reduction of exhaust gases, the possibility to introduce a quantity of biodiesel inside traditional diesel from fossils fuels is one of the step taken by petroleum societies. However, the knowledge of thermophysical properties of fluids is scant, for mixture and pure compounds, where few data exist. In this work, a new measurement probe under high pressure, has been developed in the aim to realize measurements of thermophysical properties using a minimum volume sample, thanks a technique of measurements of speed of sound using piezoelectric transducers and viscosity using quartz crystals. If this thesis is focused on the work on the biodiesels and their pure components, this probe will be experimented, in a near future, on fluids directly from oil fields and/or syntheses ones under pressure, in the aim to determine thermophysical properties but also phase equilibria.

Esta tese está dividida em duas partes. Na Parte I, blendas de polietileno maleado (M-PE) e butirato acetato de celulose (CAB) (5-50% em massa) e compósitos de polietileno (PE) ou M-PE e 20% em massa de celulose, acetato de celulose (CA), propionato acetato de celulose (CAP) ou CAB foram preparados em um misturador. As estruturas e propriedades das misturas foram estudadas através de ensaios mecânicos, calorimetria exploratória diferencial, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, extração com solvente seletivo seguida de espectroscopia FTIR e difração de raios-X (XRD). As blendas M-PE/CAB e os compósitos PE/polissacarídeo e M-PE/polissacarídeo não apresentaram mudanças significativas nos valores da temperatura de fusão (Tm) quando comparados aos valores de Tm do PE e do M-PE. Dados de XRD mostraram que a adição das cargas não causou mudança na estrutura cristalina do PE ou M-PE, mas aumentou a região amorfa dos materiais, indicado que a miscibilidade ocorre na parte amorfa do PE. Compósitos preparados com M-PE apresentaram tensão no escoamento e elongação superiores do que os preparados com PE, evidenciando o efeito compatibilizante do anidrido maléico. Na parte II, o efeito de dois bons solventes, acetona e acetato de etila, nas características e propriedades superficiais dos filmes finos (50nm&#60;espessura<200nm) e ultrafinos (espessura<6nm) de CA, CAP ou CAB preparados por revestimento rotacional ou adsorção, respectivamente, foram caracterizados por elipsometria, microscopia de força atômica (AFM) e medidas de ângulo de contato. Os resultados foram discutidos baseados na taxa de evaporação do solvente e na energia de interação substrato-solvente. Os efeitos do recozimento e do tipo de éster de celulose na espessura, morfologia e molhabilidade da superfície foram investigados. Após o recozimento, os filmes ultrafinos de ésteres de celulose tornam-se hidrofóbicos, indicando uma reorientação molecular na interface sólido-ar. Os filmes ultrafinos preparados a partir de soluções de acetona são estáveis, enquanto que os preparados a partir de soluções de acetato de etila apresentaram dewetting. A estabilidade dos filmes foi monitorada por AFM e explicada pelos valores da constante de Hamaker, determinados pela primeira vez para estes materiais. A imobilização de lipase sobre os filmes ultrafinos estáveis de CA, CAP e CAB com e sem recozimento foi quantificada para avaliar a possibilidade de aplicação destes filmes como substratos para biomoléculas. A adsorção de lipase sobre os filmes de CA e CAP com recozimento foi mais pronunciada do que nos mesmos filmes sem recozimento. A atividade enzimática da lipase foi avaliada com medidas espectrofotométricas do produto formado a partir da hidrólise do para-nitrofenol dodecanoato. A lipase imobilizada sobre os filmes mais hidrofóbicos apresentou uma atividade maior do que a lipase livre e manteve a atividade alta após três usos. As amostras foram estocadas por até 30 dias. A lipase imobilizada sobre os filmes mais hidrofóbicos manteve 70% da sua atividade, e a lipase imobilizada sobre os filmes mais hidrofílicos manteve apenas 30% da atividade. Estes resultados indicaram que preservação da estrutura conformacional da enzima foi favorecida pela hidrofobicidade do substrato polimérico e interações entre os resíduos polares da lipase e as partes de glucopiranosil dos ésteres de celulose. / This thesis is divided into two parts. In the first part, blends of maleated polyethylene (M-PE) and cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) (5-50wt%) and composites of polyethylene (PE) or M-PE and 20wt% of cellulose, cellulose acetate (CA) or cellulose acetate propionate (CAP) were prepared in an laboratory mixer. The mixtures structures and properties have been studied by means of tensile testing, differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and extraction with a selective solvent followed by Raman spectroscopy. No significant change on the melting temperature (Tm) values obtained for M-PE/CAB blends or PE/polysaccharides or M-PE/polysaccharides composites could be observed, when compared with the Tm values obtained for PE and M-PE. X-ray diffraction showed that the addition of the polysaccharides had no influence on the lattice constants of PE or M-PE, but it increased the PE amorphous region, indicating that the miscibility happens on the amorphous region of the PE. Composites prepared with M-PE presented yield stress and elongation values higher than those prepared with PE, showing the compatibilizer effect of maleic anhydride. In the second part, the effect of two good solvents, acetone and ethyl acetate, on the characteristics and surface properties of thin (30nm&#60;thickness<200nm) and ultrathin (thickness<6nm) cellulose ester films obtained by spin coating or adsorption, respectively, has been investigated by means of ellipsometry, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and contact angle measurements. The results were discussed in the light of solvent evaporation rate and interaction energy between substrate and solvent. The effects of annealing and type of cellulose ester on film thickness, film morphology and surface wettability were also studied. Upon annealing, ultrathin films of cellulose ester became hydrophobic, evidencing molecular re-orientation at the solid-air interface. Ultrathin films prepared from acetone solutions are stable, but the ones prepared from ethyl acetate solutions presented dewetting. Film stability was followed by AFM and explained with basis on the Hamaker constant values, calculated for the first time for CA, CAP and CAB. The adsorption of lipase onto stable ultrathin films of cellulose esters, with and without annealing, was quantified in order to evaluate the possibility of applying such films as support for biomolecules. Lipase adsorption onto annealed CA and CAP films was more pronounced than that onto CA and CAP untreated films. Enzymatic activity was evaluated by the spectrophotometric measurement of the product formed from the hydrolysis of para-nitrophenyl dodecanoate. Lipase immobilized onto more hydrophobic films presented higher activity than free lipase and could be reused three times retaining activity at a high level. The effect of storing time on the activity of immobilized lipase was studied. Lipase immobilized onto more hydrophobic films retained 70% of activity after one month, reaching the same level of activity of free lipase, and lipase immobilized onto more hydrophilic films retained just 30% of activity after 30 days. These results indicated that enzyme preservation was favored by polymeric substrate hydrophobicity and by the interactions between the polar residues of lipase and the glucopyranosyl moieties of cellulose ester.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo sintetizar o palmitato de isopropila, éster emoliente, empregando como biocatalisador lipases microbianas imobilizadas em partículas de poli(estireno-co-divinilbenzeno) (STY-DVB-M) obtidas por meio da técnica de polimerização em suspensão e magnetizadas por co-precipitação de íons de Fe +2 e Fe +3 em meio básico. Inicialmente, a influência da concentração do agente de suspensão e da agitação na distribuição granulométrica do polímero sintetizado foi avaliada por planejamento experimental 2 2, com triplicata no ponto central. As polimerizações que resultaram nas maiores quantidades de partículas com tamanhos apropriados para utilização como suporte para imobilização (entre 80 e 24 mesh), foram obtidas empregando as seguintes condições experimentais: 1% de agente de suspensão (PVA) e 400 rpm de agitação. O suporte obtido foi utilizado para imobilizar a lipase de Candida rugosa (LCR) e lipase de Penicillium camemberti (LG) via adsorção física e os biocatalisadores resultantes aplicados em reações de esterificação do ácido palmítico com isopropanol em meio heptano. Para cada biocatalisador foi adotado um planejamento experimental estrela rotacional 22, com triplicata no ponto central para avaliar a influência da concentração de biocatalisador (% m/v) e da razão molar (ácido:álcool) no rendimento de esterificação. Nas condições otimizadas em 12 h de reação foram obtidos 75,60 e 88,53% de rendimento de esterificação, respectivamente, para a LCR e LG imobilizada em STY-DVB-M. A quantidade de água formada durante o bioprocesso não foi considerada fator relevante para interferir no progresso da síntese. O biocatalisador obtido pela LG imobilizada em STY-DVB-M foi empregado em biorreator de tanque agitado (280 mL), na condição ótima, em um experimento com ampliação de escala, atingindo 85,68% de rendimento em 12 horas de reação. No entanto, foi observado cisalhamento do suporte em função da agitação mecânica, optando-se pela realização do bioprocesso em biorreator de leito fixo (dimensões: 11 mm de diâmetro interno x 16,6 mm de comprimento) com recirculação do meio reacional (1,5 mL.min-1). A operação do sistema nesta configuração foi impossibilitada pela evaporação e/ou percolação do solvente. Assim, foram realizadas reações em reator de leito fixo em meio isento de solvente nas seguintes razões molares: 1:3, 1:4 e 1:6 (ácido:álcool), cujos melhores resultados foram obtidos na razão molar de 1:4, apresentando 56% de rendimento, 215,88 g.L-1 do palmitato de isopropila e produtividade de 26,87 g.L-1.h-1, decorridas 8h de reação com vazão de reciclo de 1,5 mLmin-1. O emprego de peneira molecular no reservatório do substrato proporcionou um acréscimo de aproximadamente 7% na formação do éster. Essa mesma condição experimental (1:4 em meio isento de solvente) foi testada em reator de tanque agitado, atingindo produtividade de 33,40 g.L-1.h-1 em 8h de reação. No entanto, em função da desvantagem do cisalhamento do suporte constatada neste tipo de biorreator, concluiu-se que o biorreator de leito fixo foi a configuração mais adequada, para a condução do bioprocesso estudado, apresentando viabilidade do processo enzimático empregando lipase imobilizada em suporte híbrido magnetizado para a síntese do palmitato de isopropila. / The aim of this study was to synthesize isopropyl palmitate, an emollient ester, using as biocatalyst microbial lipase immobilized on magnetic copolymer. The support was prepared by suspension polymerization technique using styrene and divinylbenzene monomers in the presence of magnetite particles synthesized by co-precipitation of Fe+2 and Fe+3. The influence of the suspending agent concentration and the mechanical agitation on the granulometric distribution of the synthesized polymer was assessed by a 22 factorial design with triplicate at central point. The statistical analysis indicated that the optimal experimental conditions to obtain the largest amount of particles with suitable size (between 80 and 24 mesh) to be used as immobilizing support were attained at 1% suspending agent (PVA) at 400 rpm stirring. The resulting support was used to immobilize Candida rugosa lipase (LCR) and Penicillium camemberti lipase (LG) by physical adsorption and applied in the esterification reaction of palmitic acid with isopropyl alcohol in presence of solvent (heptane). For each biocatalyst a central composite 22 experimental design with triplicate at central point was performed to determine the influence of biocatalyst concentration (% m/v) and molar ratio (acid: alcohol) on the reaction yield. Under the optimal conditions higher performance was achieved by LG immobilized on STY-DVB-M (88.53%) than LCR immobilized on STYDVB-M (75.60%) with shaking at 12 hours reaction. For both reactions the amount of water formed as byproduct was not found to be a relevant factor that interferes in the synthesis progress. The most activity immobilized biocatalyst (LG STY-DVB-M) was used in agitated tank bioreactor (280 mL), under optimized conditions, in an experiment with scale-up, reaching 85.68% yield in 12 hours. However, it has been observed that the support was low mechanical shear and therefore an attempted was made to run the reaction in a packed bed bioreactor (dimensions: 11 mm internal diameter x 16,6 mm length) with recirculation of the reaction medium (1,5 mL.min-1). The system could not be operated under this configuration because of solvent evaporation and/or percolation. Thereby, the reactions were carried out in packed bed reactor using solvent-free medium under the following molar ratios: 1:3, 1:4 and 1:6 (acid: alcohol). The best performance (56% yield, 215.88 g L-1 of isopropyl palmitate and 26.87 gL-1.h-1 of productivity) was attained running the reactor with substrate at molar ratio of acid to alcohol of 1:4 for 8 hours with recycle rate of 1,5 mL.min-1. The use of a molecular sieve in the substrate reservoir resulted in an increase of approximately 7% of ester formation. By comparison, esterification run under the same experimental condition (1:4 in solvent-free medium) was carried out in a stirred tank reactor and slight higher productivity (33.40 g.L-1.h-1) was achieved. However, due the shear limitation of the support, it was concluded that the most suitable configuration for this bioprocess is the packed bed bioreactor, thereby showing that the enzymatic process is feasible using lipase immobilized on a magnetized hybrid support for isopropyl palmitate synthesis.

O crack é a forma fumada de administração da cocaína com o maior potencial para causar dependência. Até 80% da sua fumaça consiste no produto de pirólise da cocaína, a metilecgonidina (AEME). Apesar do vasto conhecimento acerca dos efeitos e prejuízos causados pela cocaína, nenhum trabalho avaliou os efeitos da AEME na farmacodependência, objetivo deste trabalho. Ratos adultos machos Wistar foram expostos à salina, à AEME 3 mg/kg, à cocaína 15 mg/kg e a associação entre cocaína e AEME, intraperitonealmente, em duas situações: 1) exposição prolongada (administração todos os dias, por 9 dias); 2) sensibilização comportamental dependente de contexto (administração em dias alternados, por 5 dias e 7 dias de abstinência, seguido do desafio). A dose de AEME foi definida pela avaliação da atividade locomotora em teste agudo. A AEME foi capaz de aumentar a atividade locomotora após exposição prolongada e potencializar a expressão da sensibilização comportamental dependente de contexto induzida pela cocaína. A concentração de dopamina e seus metabólitos aumentaram no caudado-putâmen em todos os grupos, sendo observado um sinergismo entre cocaína e AEME no grupo da associação. No núcleo accumbens, foi observado aumento de dopamina apenas nos grupos cocaína e associação. Paralelamente, houve aumento da relação p-CREB/CREB 60 minutos após a administração aguda de AEME 3 mg/kg e cocaína 15 mg/kg, tanto no caudado-putâmen quanto no núcleo accumbens, assim como nos grupos cocaína e associação após a sensibilização comportamental dependente de contexto. Com a finalidade de determinar o mecanismo de ação da AEME, foi realizado um estudo farmacológico detalhado dessa substância em células CHO-K1 de rato expressando heterologamente os receptores colinérgicos muscarínicos subtipos 1 a 5, uma vez que estudos anteriores sugeriram uma interação entre a AEME e os receptores colinérgicos muscarínicos. O ensaio de competição com [3H]NMS mostrou uma pequena preferência da AEME para o subtipo M2. Estudos funcionais (mobilização de cálcio) revelaram um efeito agonista parcial da AEME para os subtipos M1 e M3 e antagonista para os demais subtipos, dando suporte à hipótese colinérgica de ação da AEME. Nossos resultados indicam que a AEME isoladamente não foi capaz de causar sensibilização, mas potencializou a ação da cocaína quando coadministrada. O efeito antagonista da AEME em receptores subtipo M2 e M4 no caudado-putâmen, e M4 e M5 no núcleo accumbens causaram aumento de dopamina nessas regiões encefálicas, onde a atividade colinérgica medeia sua liberação. / Crack cocaine is the smoked form of cocaine with the highest potential for addiction. Up to 80% of crack smoke consists of cocaines pyrolysis product anhydroecgonine methyl ester (AEME). Despite of many studies regarding cocaine effects and its hazardousness, few reports have assessed AEME\'s role in addiction, the aim of this study. Adult male Wistar rats were i.p. dosed with either saline, 3 mg/kg AEME, cocaine 15 mg/kg, or cocaine-AEME combination in two situations: 1) prolonged exposure (drugs administered every day for 9 days); 2) behavioral sensitization context specific (drugs administered in alternating days for 5 days, followed by 7-days abstinence period and a challenge injection). AEME dose was chosen based on locomotor activity after an acute test. AEME increased locomotor activity in the prolonged exposure and it potentiated cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization. Dopamine level and its metabolites were elevated in the caudate-putamen in all non-saline groups with a synergic effect between cocaine and AEME in the cocaine-AEME group. In the nucleus accumbens, dopamine was elevated only in cocaine and cocaine-AEME groups. At the same time, p-CREB/CREB ratio, increased 60 minutes after an acute administration of 3 mg/kg AEME and 15 mg/kg cocaine in both caudate-putamen and nucleus accumbens, the same result observed in both cocaine and cocaine-AEME groups after behavioral sensitization. Once previous studies suggested AEME interacts with muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, a detailed pharmacological analysis of AEME at rat muscarinic acetylcholine receptors subtypes 1-5 heterologously expressed in CHO-K1 cells was performed to determine a mechanism for the novel effects of AEME. [3H]NMS competition binding showed a slight preference for M2 subtype; functional studies (Ca2+ mobilization) revealed partial agonist effects at M1 and M3 and antagonist effects at the remaining subtypes, supporting the cholinergic hypothesis of AEME\'s effects. Our results indicate AEME alone does not elicit behavior sensitization but significantly potentiates cocaine sensitization when co-administered. AEME antagonism effects at M2 and M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors subtypes in the caudate-putamen, and M4 and M5 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors subtypes in the nucleus accumbens resulted in dopamine increase in these brain regions, where its release is mediated by cholinergic activity.

O crack é a forma fumada de administração da cocaína com o maior potencial para causar dependência. Até 80% da sua fumaça consiste no produto de pirólise da cocaína, a metilecgonidina (AEME). Apesar do vasto conhecimento acerca dos efeitos e prejuízos causados pela cocaína, nenhum trabalho avaliou os efeitos da AEME na farmacodependência, objetivo deste trabalho. Ratos adultos machos Wistar foram expostos à salina, à AEME 3 mg/kg, à cocaína 15 mg/kg e a associação entre cocaína e AEME, intraperitonealmente, em duas situações: 1) exposição prolongada (administração todos os dias, por 9 dias); 2) sensibilização comportamental dependente de contexto (administração em dias alternados, por 5 dias e 7 dias de abstinência, seguido do desafio). A dose de AEME foi definida pela avaliação da atividade locomotora em teste agudo. A AEME foi capaz de aumentar a atividade locomotora após exposição prolongada e potencializar a expressão da sensibilização comportamental dependente de contexto induzida pela cocaína. A concentração de dopamina e seus metabólitos aumentaram no caudado-putâmen em todos os grupos, sendo observado um sinergismo entre cocaína e AEME no grupo da associação. No núcleo accumbens, foi observado aumento de dopamina apenas nos grupos cocaína e associação. Paralelamente, houve aumento da relação p-CREB/CREB 60 minutos após a administração aguda de AEME 3 mg/kg e cocaína 15 mg/kg, tanto no caudado-putâmen quanto no núcleo accumbens, assim como nos grupos cocaína e associação após a sensibilização comportamental dependente de contexto. Com a finalidade de determinar o mecanismo de ação da AEME, foi realizado um estudo farmacológico detalhado dessa substância em células CHO-K1 de rato expressando heterologamente os receptores colinérgicos muscarínicos subtipos 1 a 5, uma vez que estudos anteriores sugeriram uma interação entre a AEME e os receptores colinérgicos muscarínicos. O ensaio de competição com [3H]NMS mostrou uma pequena preferência da AEME para o subtipo M2. Estudos funcionais (mobilização de cálcio) revelaram um efeito agonista parcial da AEME para os subtipos M1 e M3 e antagonista para os demais subtipos, dando suporte à hipótese colinérgica de ação da AEME. Nossos resultados indicam que a AEME isoladamente não foi capaz de causar sensibilização, mas potencializou a ação da cocaína quando coadministrada. O efeito antagonista da AEME em receptores subtipo M2 e M4 no caudado-putâmen, e M4 e M5 no núcleo accumbens causaram aumento de dopamina nessas regiões encefálicas, onde a atividade colinérgica medeia sua liberação. / Crack cocaine is the smoked form of cocaine with the highest potential for addiction. Up to 80% of crack smoke consists of cocaines pyrolysis product anhydroecgonine methyl ester (AEME). Despite of many studies regarding cocaine effects and its hazardousness, few reports have assessed AEME\'s role in addiction, the aim of this study. Adult male Wistar rats were i.p. dosed with either saline, 3 mg/kg AEME, cocaine 15 mg/kg, or cocaine-AEME combination in two situations: 1) prolonged exposure (drugs administered every day for 9 days); 2) behavioral sensitization context specific (drugs administered in alternating days for 5 days, followed by 7-days abstinence period and a challenge injection). AEME dose was chosen based on locomotor activity after an acute test. AEME increased locomotor activity in the prolonged exposure and it potentiated cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization. Dopamine level and its metabolites were elevated in the caudate-putamen in all non-saline groups with a synergic effect between cocaine and AEME in the cocaine-AEME group. In the nucleus accumbens, dopamine was elevated only in cocaine and cocaine-AEME groups. At the same time, p-CREB/CREB ratio, increased 60 minutes after an acute administration of 3 mg/kg AEME and 15 mg/kg cocaine in both caudate-putamen and nucleus accumbens, the same result observed in both cocaine and cocaine-AEME groups after behavioral sensitization. Once previous studies suggested AEME interacts with muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, a detailed pharmacological analysis of AEME at rat muscarinic acetylcholine receptors subtypes 1-5 heterologously expressed in CHO-K1 cells was performed to determine a mechanism for the novel effects of AEME. [3H]NMS competition binding showed a slight preference for M2 subtype; functional studies (Ca2+ mobilization) revealed partial agonist effects at M1 and M3 and antagonist effects at the remaining subtypes, supporting the cholinergic hypothesis of AEME\'s effects. Our results indicate AEME alone does not elicit behavior sensitization but significantly potentiates cocaine sensitization when co-administered. AEME antagonism effects at M2 and M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors subtypes in the caudate-putamen, and M4 and M5 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors subtypes in the nucleus accumbens resulted in dopamine increase in these brain regions, where its release is mediated by cholinergic activity.

O éster de sorbitan etoxilado (ESE) é obtido por meio de duas reações consecutivas. Na primeira reação, ácidos graxos são esterificados com sorbitol, gerando os ésteres de sorbitan, podendo ser utilizados nesta reação diferentes tipos de ácidos graxos, de diversas origens, produzindo ésteres com diferentes características. Em seguida, estes ésteres são modificados pela adição de óxido de eteno, obtendo-se então os ésteres de sorbitan etoxilados. Esses ésteres constituem um grupo de tensoativos não-iônicos com ampla aplicação em cosméticos, detergentes, produtos farmacêuticos, formulações agroquímicas e alimentos. Para determinadas aplicações, o produto líquido é convertido para a forma sólida a partir da adsorção em composto mineral. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar o comportamento térmico do produto sólido, empregando-se as técnicas termoanalíticas. Os ensaios TG e DSC mostraram que o composto mineral catalisa a decomposição térmica do produto diminuindo seu tempo de vida útil. Os espectros no infravermelho dos voláteis liberados durante o processo térmico indicaram a formação de aldeídos e/ou ácidos carboxílicos como produtos da oxidação. Alguns antioxidantes foram testados e o BHA apresentou melhor desempenho. Observou-se que, mesmo com a adição de antioxidantes, o processo de auto-aquecimento do ESE em composto mineral não é inibido totalmente e isso torna recomendável estocar o material em local apropriado e em embalagens pequenas. Também se sugere embalar o produto sob pressão reduzida ou empregando atmosfera inerte, por exemplo, nitrogênio / The ethoxylated sorbitan ester is produced by two consecutive reactions. In the first reaction, fatty acids are esterified with sorbitol producing sorbitan esters; different types of fatty acids from various sources can be used, producing ester with different characteristics. Afterwards these esters are modified by the addition of ethylene oxide, resulting in the ethoxylated sorbitan esters. These esters are a group of nonionic surfactants with wide application in cosmetics, detergents, pharmaceuticals, agrochemical formulations and food. For certain applications the liquid product is converted into the solid state by adsorption in mineral compound. This study aimed to evaluate the thermal behavior of the product in the solid form using the thermalanalytical techniques. TG and DSC experiments have demonstrated that the mineral compound catalyzes the thermal decomposition of the product, reducing its shelf life. The infrared spectra of the volatile released during the thermal process indicated the formation of aldehydes and/or carboxylic acids as oxidation products. Some antioxidants were tested and BHA showed the best performance. It was observed, however, that even with the addition of antioxidants the process of self-heating of ESE in mineral compound is not completely inhibited and this makes it advisable to store the material in an appropriate area and in smaller packages. It also suggests packing the product under reduced pressure or using inert atmosphere as nitrogen, for example.

Cette thèse de doctorat aborde de nouvelles conceptions de films à base de résines d’ester de cyanate (CER) en présence de liquides ioniques (LIs) en tant qu'agents multifonctionnels : catalyseurs, agents de modification réactifs, renforts ou agents porogènes. Les liquides ioniques de structures et de concentrations variables accélèrent de manière significative la polycyclotrimérisation du dicyanate d’ester de bisphenol E, en l'absence de tout solvant organique supplémentaire ou additif. Les réseaux de polycyanurates resultants dopés avec des liquides ioniques aprotiques peuvent constituer des matériaux prometteurs pour la production de structures photosensibles. De tels systèmes nanocomposites permettent la séparation, larécupération et le recyclage aisés des LIs par simple extraction, ce qui permet finalement l'obtention de films nanoporeux thermostables. Les caractéristiques de la porosité de ces matériaux dépendent de la concentration des LIs dans les précurseurs CERs. Les LIs protoniques contenant des groupements fonctionnels >NH et -OH, indépendamment de leurmasse molaire, de la structure chimique du cation et de l'anion, sont incorporés chimiquement dans le réseau polycyanurate. Ainsi, les matériaux hybrides obtenus avec des fragments de liquides ioniques pourraient fournir d’excellents candidats pour des recherches futures sur les ionomères et les nanocomposites. / This PhD thesis addresses new designs of cyanate ester resin (CER) films in the presence of ionic liquids as multifunctional agents: catalysts, reactive modifiers, fillers or porogens. It should be emphasized that ionic liquids (ILs) of varying structures and concentrations significantly accelerate the polycyclotrimerization of dicyanate ester of bisphenol E, in the absence of any additional organic solvent or additive. The resulting polycyanurate networks doped with aprotic ionic liquids can be promising materials for producing photosensitive structures. Such nanocomposite systems allow for easier separation, recovery, and recycling of ILs by mere extraction, which eventually affords thermally stable nanoporous films. The porosity features of these materials depend on the concentration of ILs in the CER precursors.Protic ILs containing functional >NH and -OH groups, regardless of molar mass, chemical structure of cation and anion, chemically incorporate into the polycyanurate network, thus the resulting hybrid materials with fragments of ionic liquids could provide excellent candidates for future research in ionomers and nanocomposites.

<p>The Mad/Max/Myc transcription factor network takes part in the control of vital cellular functions such as growth, proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Dimerization with the protein Max is necessary for the Myc-family of oncoproteins and their antagonists, the Mad-family proteins, to regulate target genes and carry out their intended functions. Myc functions as a positive regulator of proliferation, antagonized by the growth inhibitory Mad-proteins that potentially functions as tumor supprerssors. Deregulated Myc expression is found in a variety of tumors and signals negatively regulating Myc expression and/or activity could therefore be of potential use in treating tumors with deregulated Myc.</p><p>Our aim was to therefore to investigate possible negative effects on Myc expression and activity by growth inhibitory cytokines and by the Myc antagonists, the Mad-family proteins.Two different cellular model systems of neuronal and hematopoietic origin have been utilized for these studies.</p><p>Our results show that Mad1 is upregulated during induced neuronal differentiation of SH-SY5Y cells. Further, the growth inhibitory cytokine interferon-g (IFN-g) was shown to cooperate with retinoic acid (RA) and the phorbol ester TPA in inducing growth arrest and differentiation in N-<i>myc</i> amplified neuroblastoma cell lines. In contrast to treatment with either agent alone, the combined treatment of TPA+IFN-g and RA+IFN-g led to upregulation of Mad1 and to downregulation of N-Myc, respectively, thus correlating with the enhanced growth inhibition and differentiation observed after combination treatment. Ectopic expression of an inducible Mad1 in monoblastic U-937 cells led to growth inhibition but did not lead to differentiation or enhancement of differentiation induced by RA, vitamin D3 or TPA. In v-Myc transformed U-937 cells Mad1 expression reestablished the TPA-induced G1 cell cycle arrest, but did not restore differentiation, blocked by v-Myc. The growth inhibitory cytokine TGF-b was found to induce Mad1 expression and Mad1:Max complex formation in v-Myc transformed U-937 cells correlating with reduced Myc activity and G1 arrest. </p><p>In conclusion, our results show that the Myc-antagonist Mad1 is upregulated by growth inhibitory cytokines and/or differentiation signals in neuronal and hematopoietic cells and that enforced Mad1 expression in hematopoietic cells results in growth inhibition and increased sensitivity to anti-proliferative cytokines. Mad1 and cytokine-induced signals therefore seem to cooperate in counteracting Myc activity.</p>

The Mad/Max/Myc transcription factor network takes part in the control of vital cellular functions such as growth, proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Dimerization with the protein Max is necessary for the Myc-family of oncoproteins and their antagonists, the Mad-family proteins, to regulate target genes and carry out their intended functions. Myc functions as a positive regulator of proliferation, antagonized by the growth inhibitory Mad-proteins that potentially functions as tumor supprerssors. Deregulated Myc expression is found in a variety of tumors and signals negatively regulating Myc expression and/or activity could therefore be of potential use in treating tumors with deregulated Myc. Our aim was to therefore to investigate possible negative effects on Myc expression and activity by growth inhibitory cytokines and by the Myc antagonists, the Mad-family proteins.Two different cellular model systems of neuronal and hematopoietic origin have been utilized for these studies. Our results show that Mad1 is upregulated during induced neuronal differentiation of SH-SY5Y cells. Further, the growth inhibitory cytokine interferon-g (IFN-g) was shown to cooperate with retinoic acid (RA) and the phorbol ester TPA in inducing growth arrest and differentiation in N-myc amplified neuroblastoma cell lines. In contrast to treatment with either agent alone, the combined treatment of TPA+IFN-g and RA+IFN-g led to upregulation of Mad1 and to downregulation of N-Myc, respectively, thus correlating with the enhanced growth inhibition and differentiation observed after combination treatment. Ectopic expression of an inducible Mad1 in monoblastic U-937 cells led to growth inhibition but did not lead to differentiation or enhancement of differentiation induced by RA, vitamin D3 or TPA. In v-Myc transformed U-937 cells Mad1 expression reestablished the TPA-induced G1 cell cycle arrest, but did not restore differentiation, blocked by v-Myc. The growth inhibitory cytokine TGF-b was found to induce Mad1 expression and Mad1:Max complex formation in v-Myc transformed U-937 cells correlating with reduced Myc activity and G1 arrest. In conclusion, our results show that the Myc-antagonist Mad1 is upregulated by growth inhibitory cytokines and/or differentiation signals in neuronal and hematopoietic cells and that enforced Mad1 expression in hematopoietic cells results in growth inhibition and increased sensitivity to anti-proliferative cytokines. Mad1 and cytokine-induced signals therefore seem to cooperate in counteracting Myc activity.

Pour des raisons autant écologiques qu'économiques ou techniques, des huiles de base d'esters naturels ont été utilisées pour remplacer de l'huile minérale dans les appareillages basse et moyenne tensions. Ce travail consiste en étude de caractérisation d'un mélange des esters naturels de faible viscosité (RS50) basant sur l'huile de colza pour les applications dans les transformateurs haute tension. L'influence des facteurs humidité, température, teneur en particules ainsi que vieillissement thermique sur ses propriétés diélectriques telles que : permittivité, conductivité, pertes et rigidité électrique sous tension alternative a été mise en évidence. La RS50 présente une solubilité de l'eau élevée, la conductivité, la permittivité et les pertes plus élevées que celles de l'huile minérale mais ces différences sont réduites dans des huiles vieillies. Sa rigidité électrique en tension alternative est similaire à l'huile minérale, même après le vieillissement. Pourtant, une analyse des phénomènes de préclaquage et de claquage dans des configurations particulières ont montré que les esters naturels sont moins favorables pour les applications à haute tension que l'huile minérale. Parallèlement, des études méthodologiques ont été effectuées. L'intérêt d'une application de la méthode de mesure spectroscopique fréquentielle à la caractérisation des isolants liquides est la mise en évidence et la validité des conditions de mesure de la rigidité électrique du liquide isolant, ce qui est traditionnellement imposé suivant les normes, a été discutée.