Οι μέχρι τώρα ενδείξεις από τη βιβλιογραφία εισηγούνται ένα πιθανό προστατευτικό ρόλο των οιστρογόνων στην καρκινογένεση στο παχύ έντερο. Η έκφραση των οιστρογονικών υποδοχέων στο φυσιολογικό βλεννογόνο του παχέος εντέρου, στα αδενώματα και τα καρκινώματα και οι αλληλεπιδράσεις τους με διάφορους συμπαράγοντες θα πρέπει να μελετηθούν υπό το πρίσμα των πολύπλοκων μοριακών δικτύων μεταξύ επιθηλιακών κυττάρων και μυοϊνοβλαστών του στρώματος, αλλά και της θεωρίας των βλαστικών κυττάρων που φαίνεται να ενέχονται στην καρκινογένεση. Η έκφραση των ERα, ERβ1, ΑΙΒ-1, TIF-2, PELP1, NCoR και ALDH1 μελετήθηκε ανοσοϊστοχημικά σε 107 καρκινώματα παχέος εντέρου, σε 77 δείγματα φυσιολογικού βλεννογόνου και σε 29 αδενώματα του ίδιου οργάνου. Εκτιμήθηκαν τόσο τα επιθηλιακά κύτταρα όσο και οι μυοϊνοβλάστες. Για την ακριβέστερη εκτίμηση των μυοϊνοβλαστών, συνεχόμενες ιστολογικές τομές υποβλήθηκαν σε ανοσοϊστοχημικό έλεγχο με χρήση των anti-αSMA και CD34 αντισωμάτων. Τα αποτελέσματά μας έδειξαν ότι η έκφραση των ERβ1, ΑΙΒ-1, ΤΙF-2 και PELP1 ήταν πιο συχνή σε μυοϊνοβλάστες του στρώματος των καρκινωμάτων σε σχέση με τα αδενώματα και το φυσιολογικό βλεννογόνο. Επίσης, στους μυοϊνοβλάστες των καρκινωμάτων, ο NCoR εντοπιζόταν αποκλειστικά στο κυτταρόπλασμα των κυττάρων. Αντίθετα, δεν υπήρχε διαφορά στο ποσοστό έκφρασης των δεικτών αυτών στα επιθηλιακά κύτταρα μεταξύ του φυσιολογικού βλεννογόνου, των αδενωμάτων και των καρκινωμάτων. Ωστόσο, η κυτταροπλασματική εντόπιση του ERβ1 ήταν συχνότερη στα επιθηλιακά κύτταρα των καρκινωμάτων σε σχέση με το φυσιολογικό βλεννογόνο και τα αδενώματα. Επίσης, ο NCoR εκφραζόταν πιο συχνά στο κυτταρόπλασμα και σπανιότερα στον πυρήνα των κακοήθων επιθηλιακών κυττάρων σε σχέση με τα φυσιολογικά επιθηλιακά κύτταρα. Η κυτταροπλασματική έκφραση του NCoR στα επιθηλιακά κύτταρα σχετιζόταν με μεγαλύτερη ελεύθερη νόσου και συνολική επιβίωση και αποτελούσε ανεξάρτητο προγνωστικό δείκτη της ελεύθερης νόσου επιβίωσης. Τα αποτελέσματά μας υποδεικνύουν ένα πιθανό ρόλο της ενεργοποίησης του μονοπατιού των οιστρογονικών υποδοχέων στους μυοϊνοβλάστες του στρώματος, στην ανάπτυξη των καρκινωμάτων του παχέος εντέρου. Επίσης, η κυτταροπλασματική μετατόπιση, από τον πυρήνα, του NCoR στα επιθηλιακά κύτταρα, πιθανότατα επηρεάζει διάφορα μοριακά δίκτυα στον πυρήνα των κυττάρων, επιφέροντας ταυτόχρονα ογκοπροαγωγές δράσεις στα επιθηλιακά κύτταρα του βλεννογόνου και ογκοκατασταλτικές επιδράσεις στα αναπτυσσόμενα νεοπλάσματα. Δεδομένου ότι, η πυρηνική έκφραση του NCoR έχει προταθεί ως δείκτης των stem κυττάρων, τα ελάχιστα κύτταρα, στα οποία παρατηρήθηκε πυρηνική έκφραση στον καρκίνο παχέος εντέρου, πιθανότατα, αντιστοιχούν σε καρκινικά stem κύτταρα. Η ALDH1 αποτελεί, επίσης, δείκτη φυσιολογικών και καρκινικών stem κυττάρων σε διάφορα όργανα. Στη μελέτη μας η ALDH1 εκφράστηκε έντονα σε κύτταρα του φυσιολογικού βλεννογόνου, τα οποία βρίσκονταν στη βάση των κρυπτών και πιθανότατα αντιπροσωπεύουν τα stem/προγονικά κύτταρα του εντερικού επιθηλίου. Κατά αντιστοιχία, η έκφραση της ALDH1 στα καρκινικά κύτταρα σχετιζόταν με παρουσία μεταστάσεων και χειρότερη ελεύθερη νόσου επιβίωση. Το εύρημα αυτό, πιθανόν, να αποτελεί ένα δείκτη των καρκινικών stem/προγονικών κυττάρων. Αντίθετα, η έκφραση ALDH1 στους μυοϊνοβλάστες των καρκινωμάτων σχετιζόταν με ευνοϊκούς προγνωστικούς παράγοντες και μεγαλύτερο ελεύθερο νόσου διάστημα. Επίσης, περιστατικά με χαμηλή έκφραση ALDH1 στους μυοϊνοβλάστες και υψηλή έκφραση στα επιθηλιακά κύτταρα σχετιζόταν με μικρότερο διάστημα ελεύθερη νόσου επιβίωσης, αλλά και συνολικής επιβίωσης. Τα ευρήματα αυτά υποδεικνύουν το σημαντικό ρόλο των πολύπλοκων αλληλεπιδράσεων επιθηλίου-στρώματος κατά την καρκινογένεση στο παχύ έντερο και επισημαίνουν τα πολύπλοκα μοριακά δίκτυα που ρυθμίζουν τη λειτουργία των κυττάρων. Η συστημική προσέγγιση των επιθηλιακών κυττάρων και της παθολογίας τους προϋποθέτει τη μελέτη των μορίων τους μέσα σε πολύπλοκα δίκτυα που επηρεάζουν τη δράση τους με μη γραμμικό τρόπο και περιλαμβάνει αμφίδρομες αλληλεπιδράσεις από τα περιβάλλοντα κύτταρα. / Background. The stochastic model of carcinogenesis is recently challenged by the stem cell model. The later suggests that cancer develops from uncontrolled proliferation and aberrant differentiation of adult stem cells or progenitor cells that acquire stem cell-like properties. Microenvironment regulates function and differentiation of normal epithelial cells creating a protective niche for stem cells. Additionally, microenvironment plays a critical role in induction and progression of carcinomas. Both mutations in adult stem cells and changes in signals emanating from the stem cell niche contribute to the initiation of carcinomas. Recent findings suggest a protective role of estrogens in colorectal carcinogenesis. However, estrogens exert various actions on cells depending on the molecular microenvironment and their cross-talk with intracellular cascades and coregulators of transcription. Additionally, estrogens modulate the function of stromal cells and might influence carcinogenesis by indirect actions. Elucidation of the molecular networks implicated in estrogen signaling is very important in view of the potential use of selective estrogen receptor modulators in chemoprevention and targeted anticancer therapy. Materials and methods. An immunohistochemical study was designed to analyze the estrogen receptors α and β and the various co-regulators of transcription expression of along with that of a proposed functional stem cell marker, ALDH1, in normal colonic mucosa, adenomas and colorectal carcinomas. One hundred seven cases of colorectal carcinoma were retrieved from the Pathology files of the University Hospital of Patras, Greece. None of the patients had received preoperative chemotherapy or radiotherapy. All female patients were at the postmenopausal age. Follow-up was available for all patients. Paired normal mucosa and adenoma specimens were evaluated in 77 and 29 cases, respectively, in an effort to examine the whole spectrum of the multistage progression of colorectal carcinogenesis. Primary antibodies against ERα, ERβ1, AIB-1, TIF-2, PELP1, NCoR and ALDH1 and the Envision polymer-based detection system were employed. Epithelial cells and stromal myofibroblasts were separately assessed. α-SMA and CD34 staining of serial histologic sections was valuable for the recognition of the myofibroblastic nature of the cells. Results. ERα expression was extremely rare and was noted in <1% of the epithelial cells in two cases of colorectal carcinoma. ERβ1, TIF-2, and NCoR were expressed in the nuclei and cytoplasm of epithelial cells and myofibroblasts. AIB-1 and PELP-1 were expressed in the nuclei of epithelial cells and myofibroblasts. PELP-1 displayed a dot-like pattern of staining in the nuclei of cells that is possibly attributed to the presence of focally increased concentration of PELP1 in multiprotein co-regulator complexes within the nuclei of cells. Statistical analysis revealed that nuclear and cytoplasmic expression of ERβ1 and TIF-2 and nuclear expression of AIB-1 and PELP1 in myofibroblasts increased from normal mucosa through adenoma to carcinomas. NCoR was expressed in the cytoplasm of carcinoma-associated fibroblasts but not in myofibroblasts of normal mucosa. Thus, various components of estrogen signaling namely ERβ1 (both genomic and non-genomic actions-associated localization) and co-regulators of transcription, are enhanced in cancer associated myofibroblasts, whereas co-repressor NCoR is expressed in the cytoplasm of the cells implying that ER signaling is enhanced in myofibroblasts of carcinomas. In contrast, nuclear expression of ERβ1, AIB-1, TIF-2, and PELP-1 in epithelial cells was not different among normal mucosa, adenomas and carcinomas. Cytoplasmic expression of ERβ1 was higher in colorectal carcinomas, implying activation of non-genomic actions of ERβ in colorectal carcinogenesis. A translocation of NCoR from the nucleus to the cytoplasm was noted in colorectal carcinomas, since nuclear expression was more common in normal mucosa and cytoplasmic expression was noted in the majority of carcinomas. Cytoplasmic expression of NCoR in epithelial cells was associated with favorable prognosis. These findings might suggest that derepression of NCoR repressed transcription is an important feature of colorectal carcinogenesis and correlates with patients’ prognosis. ALDH1 expression was noted in the nuclei and the cytoplasm of myofibroblasts and epithelial cells. Expression in myofibroblasts was more often noted in carcinomas compared to normal mucosa and was associated with absence of metastasis and favorable prognosis. Epithelial cells of normal mucosa expressed high levels of ALDH1 expression. A distinct pattern of ALDH1 expression along the crypt axis was noted. Nuclear expression was more common and cytoplasmic expression was intensified at the base of the crypts (compartment where epithelial stem cells reside) compared to superficial epithelium. Carcinomas displayed heterogenous expression of ALDH1 in epithelial cells. Increased cytoplasmic expression was associated with the presence of metastasis and poor prognosis. Thus, ALDH1 expression had distinct impacts on metastatic potential of carcinomas and patients’ prognosis, accordingly to the cell where it is expressed. Additionally, patients with increased expression in epithelial cells and decreased expression in myofibroblasts had worse prognosis compared to patients displaying all other combinations of ALDH1 expression in epithelial cells and myofibroblasts. Our findings imply a possible role of ALDH1 as a stem/progenitor cell marker in normal mucosa. The association of ALDH1 expression in malignant cells with metastatic potential and worse prognosis implies that it might represent a marker of carcinomas with increased stem/progenitor cell content. The favorable prognostic role of ALDH1 expression in myofibroblasts might be associated with its role in local retinoic acid production. Retinoic acid has various tumor suppressive roles in colorectal carcinomas and can potentially be used in chemopreventive or chemotherapeutic strategies especially in patients with low local production levels. Thus, a comprehensive analysis of molecular networks both in any single cell and among the different cells of colorectal carcinomas and non neoplastic mucosa are mandatory in order to elucidate the role of estrogen signaling in colorectal carcinogenesis in view of development of targeted clinical applications. Conclusions 1.ERβ is the predominant estrogen receptor in colonic tissue. 2.ERβ1 dependent signaling is enhanced in cancer-associated myofibroblasts. 3.PELP1 is associated with genomic actions in both epithelial cells and myofibroblats. 4.In epithelial cells, loss of NCoR nuclear expression correlates with colorectal carcinogenesis possibly through derepression of transcription mediated by various transcription factors. 5.ALDH1 emerges as a marker of normal and cancer stem cells of colorectal carcinomas.

Plusieurs éléments de la pathogenèse de la scoliose idiopathique de l’adolescent indiquent que les estrogènes pourraient intervenir dans le développement et la progression de cette maladie. Ce projet avait donc pour but d’explorer l’expression et la fonctionnalité des récepteurs aux estrogènes ERα et ERβ ainsi que leurs isoformes dans les ostéoblastes de patients scoliotiques et sains. L’induction des gènes de facteurs influençant la minéralisation et la différenciation des ostéoblastes par les estrogènes a également été étudié. Par immunofluorescence, nous avons remarqué une augmentation de la présence protéique de ERβ dans les ostéoblastes de patients SIA comparé aux sujets contrôles. Les récepteurs aux estrogènes provenant des ostéoblastes des patients sont fonctionnels tout comme ceux des contrôles et aucune différence dans l'interaction ADN-protéine n’a été observée. Il y a également une augmentation de l’expression génique de l’ostéopontine, l’ostéocalcine, le collagène de type I, la phosphatase alkaline et BMP2 dans les ostéoblastes des patients SIA. Un début de minéralisation in vitro a été observé dans les ostéoblastes de patients SIA et contrôles. ERα et ERβ sont présents et fonctionnels dans les ostéoblastes des patients SIA et sains. Leur expression est variable, mais ces variations existent chez les patients SIA et les contrôles. L’implication des estrogènes dans la SIA ne serait donc pas au niveau des récepteurs aux estrogènes mais au niveau de l’interactions des estrogènes avec d’autres facteurs étiologiques tels que la mélatonine, la formation/résorption osseuse ou autres facteurs neuro-endocriniens. / Recent developments in the research on pathogenesis of Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis indicate that estrogens could intervene in the development and progression of this disease. Therefore, this project focussed on the expression and functionality of estrogen receptors ERα and ERβ and their isoforms in osteoblasts of scoliotic patients and controls. The induction by estrogens of the expression of factors influencing mineralization and osteoblast differentiation was also studied. We observed by immunofluorescence, an increase of the presence of ERβ in osteoblasts of AIS patients compared to controls. A higher level of expression of osteopontin, osteocalcin, type I collagen, alkaline phosphatase and BMP2 was found in osteoblasts of AIS patients compared to controls. Estrogen receptors in osteoblasts from AIS patients are functional, as they were in controls and no difference in DNA-binding activity was observed. ERα et ERβ are present and functional in osteoblasts from AIS patients and controls. Their expression is variable, but these variations exist in both populations. The implication of estrogens in AIS would therefore be in the interaction between these hormones and other factors influencing the aetiology of AIS like melatonin, bone formation and resorption and neuro-endocrin factors, rather than in a default in the estrogens receptors themselves.

Introduction: La ménopause est associée à l’insulino-résistance et augmente le risque de diabète de type 2 (DT2) chez les sujets sains. Cependant, peu d’informations existent à savoir comment la ménopause et l’activité physique peuvent influencer l’homéostasie du glucose chez des sujets insulino-résistants. Objectifs: Déterminer 1) l’effet du retrait des œstrogènes ovariens par ovariectomie sur l’homéostasie du glucose des rates ZDF (Zucker Diabetic Fatty; prédisposées au diabète de type 2) et 2) évaluer l’influence de l’activité physique volontaire sur ces réponses. Méthodologie: Vingt-quatre rates furent d’abord nourries et hébergées dans des cages conventionnelles les 28 premiers jours pour ensuite subir une ovariectomie (OVX, n=16) ou une opération simulée (SHAM-Inactive, n=8). Les rates ovariectomisées furent ensuite assignées au groupe entraîné volontairement dans une cage à roue (OVX-Active, n=8) ou demeurèrent sédentaires (OVX-Inactive, n=8) pendant les 44 jours suivants. Résultats: Au jour 56, la glycémie à l’état nourri fut significativement augmentée par l’ovariectomie (p<0,01) et ramenée au niveau initial chez les rates OVX-Active (p<0,01). L’ovariectomie diminua la captation de glucose induite par l’insuline dans le muscle de façon significative (0,63 ± 0,08 vs 1,13 ± 0,27 μmol•g-1•h-1). L’entraînement améliora la tolérance au glucose (p<0,01) ainsi que la prise de glucose induite par l’insuline dans le muscle (p<0,05). Conclusion: Le retrait des estrogènes ovariens par ovariectomie perturbe l’homéostasie du glucose chez les rates ZDF femelles, sans pour autant provoquer le diabète de type 2. L’activité physique a un effet bénéfique sur l’homéostasie du glucose malgré la perte d’estrogènes ovariens. / Introduction: Menopause is associated with insulin resistance and increased risks of type 2 diabetes in healthy human subjects. However, little is known about its effects on glucose homeostasis in insulin-resistant subjects. Aims: Our aim was to study 1) the effects of ovariectomy and 2) voluntary physical activity on glucose homeostasis in ZDF (Zucker diabetic fatty) female rats, a well-known animal model of insulin resistance and diabetes. Methodology: Twenty-four rats were fed and housed in standard cages during 28 days after which they either underwent an ovariectomy (Ovx) or a sham operation (SHAM-Inactive, n=8). The ovariectomized rats either engaged in voluntary wheel cage running (OVX-Active, n=8) or remained inactive (OVX-Inactive, n=8) for the following 44 days. Results: Fed glycaemia at day 56 was significantly increased by Ovx (p<0.01) and lowered back to control level in OVX-Active rats (p<0.01). Ovx significantly decreased insulin-stimulated muscle glucose uptake (0.63 ± 0.08 vs 1.13 ± 0.27 μmol•g-1•h-1). OVX-Inactive rats also showed increased triglyceride (p<0.001) and lower glycogen (p<0.001) contents in their liver whereas pancreatic insulin content was increased (p<0.05) as compared to SHAM-Inactive rats. Training markedly improved glucose tolerance (p<0.01) and insulin-stimulated muscle glucose uptake (p<0.05) as compared to SHAM-Inactive rats. Ovx-induced alterations in pancreatic insulin content (p<0.01) and liver glycogen (p<0.05) were improved by physical activity. Conclusion: Our data suggest that ovariectomy-induced loss of ovarian estrogens impairs glucose homeostasis in female ZDF rats without triggering overt type 2 diabetes. Physical activity improves glucose homeostasis despite the estrogen loss.

[Truncated abstract] Breast cancer is the cause of significant suffering and death in our community. It is now estimated that the risk of developing breast cancer for an Australian woman before the age of 85 is 1 in 8, with this risk rising for unknown reasons. While mortality rates from breast cancer are falling due to increased awareness and early detection, few new treatments have been developed from an advanced understanding of the molecular basis of the disease. From decades of scientific research it is clear that estrogen (E2) has a large role to play in breast cancer. However, the basic mechanism behind E2 action in breast cancer remains unclear. E2 plays a fundamental role in breast cancer cell proliferation and is highly expressed in breast cancers, thus, it is important to understand both E2 and its receptor, the estrogen receptor (ER). The ER is a member of the nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily. The NR superfamily consists of a large group of proteins which regulate a large number of homeostatic proteins together with regulator proteins termed coregulators and corepressors. SRA (steroid receptor RNA activator) is the only known RNA coactivator and augments transactivation by NRs. SRA has been demonstrated to play an important role in mediating E2 action (Lanz et al., 1999; Lanz et al., 2003) and its expression is aberrant in many human breast tumors, suggesting a potential role in breast tumorigenesis (Murphy et al., 2000). Despite evidence that an alternative splice variant of SRA exists as a protein (Chooniedass-Kothari et al., 2004), it has been conclusively shown that SRA can function as an RNA transcript to coactivate NR transcription (Lanz et al., 1999; Lanz et al., 2002; Lanz et al., 2003). The precise mechanism by which SRA augments ER activity remains unknown. However, it is currently hypothesized that SRA acts as an RNA scaffold for other coregulators at the transcription initiation site. Several SRA stem loops have been identified as important for SRA function, including structure (STR) 1, 5 and 7 (Lanz et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2007). Previously, I sought to identify SRA-binding proteins using a specific stem-loop structure of SRA (STR7) that was identified as both important for its coactivator function (Lanz et al., 2002) and also as a target for proteins from breast cancer cell extracts (Hatchell, 2002). From a yeast E. Hatchell Abstract iii III hybrid screen using STR7 as bait, I identified a novel protein which was named SLIRP (Patent Number: WO/2007/009194): SRA stem-Loop Interacting RNA-binding Protein (Hatchell, 2002; Hatchell et al., 2006). '...' This thesis demonstrates that SLIRP modulates NR transactivation, provides mechanistic insight into interactions between SRA, SRC-1, HSP-60 and NCoR and suggests that SLIRP may regulate mitochondrial function. These studies contribute significantly to the growing field of NR biology, and contribute more specifically to the elucidation of estrogen action in breast cancer. Furthermore, it lays a strong and exciting foundation for further studies to evaluate SLIRP as a biomarker and potential therapeutic target in hormone dependent cancers.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karol. inst., 2006. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

La 7β-hydroxy-épiandrostérone, stéroïde endogène dérivant de la DHEA, présente des propriétés anti-inflammatoires. En effet, elle module la voie des prostaglandines (PGs) en inhibant la production de la PGE2 pro-inflammatoires et en augmentant la production de la 15-Deoxy-∆12,14-PGJ2 cyto-protectrice in vivo et in vitro. Les faibles doses de 7β-hydroxy-épiandrostérone (1nM, 10nM, 100nM) pour lesquelles ces effets sont observés, suggèrent une liaison à un récepteur spécifique. L’inflammation et la production des PGs jouent un rôle important dans le développement et la prolifération des tumeurs mammaires estrogéno-dépendantes. Le 17β-estradiol (E2), en se fixant sur les récepteurs des estrogènes (REs), induit la production de PGE2 et la prolifération cellulaire dans ces cellules tumorales. De ce fait, notre objectif était de tester les effets de la 7β-hydroxy-épiandrostérone sur la prolifération (comptage avec exclusion au bleu trypan), le cycle cellulaire et l’apoptose (cytométrie de flux) dans les lignées cellulaires de cancer du sein MCF-7 (REα+, REβ+, GPR30+) et MDA-MB-231 (REα-, REβ+, GPR30+) et d’identifier une(des) cible(s) potentielle(s) dans ces cellules (transactivation) et dans des cellules négatives pour les REs nucléaires SKBr3 (GPR30+) (études de prolifération). Cette étude a montré que la 7β-hydroxy-épiandrostérone exerce des effets anti-estrogéniques dans les cellules MCF-7 et MDA-MB-231 associés à une inhibition de la prolifération et un arrêt du cycle cellulaire. Les études de transactivation et de prolifération avec les agonistes spécifiques des REs ont montré une interaction avec le REβ. De plus, les résultats des études de proliférations sur les trois lignées cellulaires suggèrent que la 7β-hydroxy-épiandrostérone pourrait également interagir avec le GPR30. Ces résultats indiquent que ce stéroïde androgène agit comme un anti-estrogène. De plus, c’est la première fois qu’un stéroïde androgène à faible dose montre une action anti-proliférative dans des lignées de cancers du sein. Des études ultérieures restent à réaliser afin de mieux comprendre ces effets observés. / 7β-hydroxy-epiandrosterone, an endogenous androgenic derivative of DHEA, has previously been shown to exert anti-inflammatory action in vitro and in vivo via a shift from prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) to 15-deoxy-∆12,14-PGJ2 production. This modulation in prostaglandin production was obtained with low concentrations of 7β-hydroxy-epiandrosterone (1–100 nM) and suggested that it might act through a specific receptor. Inflammation and prostaglandin synthesis is important in the development and survival of estrogen-dependent mammary cancers. Estrogen induced PGE2 production and cell proliferation via its binding to estrogen receptors (ERs) in these tumors. Our objective was to test the effects of 7β-hydroxy-epiandrosterone on the proliferation (by counting with trypan blue exclusion), cell cycle and cell apoptosis (by flow cytometry) of breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 (ERα+, ERβ +, G-protein coupled receptor 30 : GPR30+) and MDA-MB-231 (ERα-, ERβ +, GPR30+) and to identify a potential target of this steroid in these cell lineages (by transactivations) and in the nuclear ER-negative SKBr3 cells (GPR30+) (by proliferation assays). 7β-hydroxy-epiandrosterone exerted anti-estrogenic effects in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells associated with cell proliferation inhibition and cell cycle arrest. Moreover, transactivation and proliferation with ER agonists assays indicated that 7β-hydroxy-epiandrosterone interacted with ERβ. Data from proliferation assays on the MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 and SKBr3 cell lines suggested that 7β-hydroxy-epiandrosterone may also act through the membrane GPR30 receptor.These results support that this androgenic steroid acts as an anti-estrogenic compound. Moreover, this is the first evidence that low doses of androgenic steroid exert antiproliferative effects in these mammary cancer cells. Further investigations are needed to improve understanding of the observed actions of endogenous 7β-hydroxy-epiandrosterone.

Em homens, com o avanço da idade ocorre declínio dos níveis plasmáticos de androgênios, enquanto os níveis de estrogênio permanecem constantes ou aumentados. Isto leva à diminuição da razão androgênio/estrogênio, sugerindo que os estrogênios podem ter um papel no desenvolvimento do câncer de próstata. Os estrogênios estão relacionados à indução da proliferação celular através da sua ligação aos receptores clássicos (ERs) e ao receptor não clássico GPER. Ambos receptores podem ativar as vias de sinalização PI3K e MAPK relacionadas à sobrevivência celular e ter importância no desenvolvimento do câncer de próstata (CaP) e da hiperplasia prostática benigna (HPB). Objetivo: Avaliar a relação dos receptores de estrogênio GPER, ERα, ERβ e suas isoformas com as vias PI3K e MAPK pela análise da expressão gênica e proteica dos receptores de estrogênio ERα, ERβ e GPER, pela análise da expressão de proteínas da via MAPK e PI3K e do estrogênio tecidual nos grupos HPB e CaP. Métodos: Tecidos prostáticos provenientes de CaP e de HPB foram submetidos à extração de RNA, o RNA foi reversamente transcrito para cDNA e avaliado usando q-PCR para a expressão dos receptores de estrogênio GPER, ERα, ERβ e suas isformas. A expressão proteica de GPER, ERα, ERβ, mTOR, PI3K e c-JUN e a ativação da p38α, ERK1/2, JNK, AKT e GSK3β foram analisadas por Western blot. A técnica de imunofluorescência foi utilizada para verificação da colocalização dos receptores GPER e ERα em estroma e epitélio de HPB e CaP. Resultados: Comparações entre os tecidos hiperplásico e de carcinoma indicaram uma maior expressão gênica e proteica de ERα e GPER em amostras de CaP comparadas à HPB. Além disso, a ativação da AKT, GSK3β e JNK e a expressão proteica da PI3K e c-JUN foram significativamente aumentadas nos tecidos de CaP enquanto que a expressão proteica de mTOR e a ativação de p38α e ERK estão diminuídas neste grupo. A expressão gênica do ERβ está aumentada no CaP porém não há diferença na expressão proteica entre os grupos. A análise da expressão gênica das isoformas do ERβ mostrou diminuição de ERβ1 e ERβ6 e aumento das isoformas ERβ2 e ERβ5 no CaP. Não foram detectadas as expressões das isoformas ERβ3 e ERβ4 em ambos os grupos. Nossos resultados também mostraram que os receptores GPER e ERα estão colocalizados no núcleo de células estromais de HPB e CaP. Além disso, o GPER está expresso com maior intensidade no epitélio de ambos os grupos enquanto o ERα está expresso com maior intensidade no estroma do CaP. A medida do estrogênio tecidual mostrou aumento deste no tecido de CaP em relação ao de HPB. Conclusões: O presente estudo mostrou aumento do estrogênio e de seus receptores ERα e GPER no CaP em relação ao HPB indicando que há modulação estrogênica na próstata. Além disso, proteínas das vias MAPK e PI3K que podem ser moduladas pela ação estrogênica estão expressas de maneiras diferentes em ambos os grupos. O estudo da ação estrogênica parece ser importante para o entendimento da progressão das doenças prostáticas. / In men with advancing age decline in plasma levels of androgens occurs while estrogen levels remain constant or increased. This leads to the decrease of the androgen / estrogen, suggesting that estrogens may play a role in the development of prostate cancer. Estrogens are related to the induction of cell proliferation by binding to classical receptors (ERs) and non-classical receptor GPER. Both receptors can activate signaling pathways PI3K and MAPK related to cell survival and have importance in the development of prostate cancer (PCa) and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Objective: To evaluate the relationship of estrogen receptors GPER, ERα, ERβ with the PI3K and MAPK pathways was performed analysis of gene and protein expression of ERα, ERβ and GPER, analysis of protein expression to MAPK and PI3K pathways and tissue estrogen in PCa and BPH groups. Methods: Prostatic tissues from PCa and BPH underwent RNA extraction, RNA was reverse transcribed to cDNA and evaluated using q-PCR for the expression of estrogen receptors GPER, ERα, ERβ and their isformas. Protein expression of GPER, ERα, ERβ, mTOR, PI3K and c-JUN and activation of p38α, ERK1/2, JNK, AKT and GSK3β were analyzed by Western blot. The immunofluorescence technique was used to verify the colocalization of GPER and ERα receptors in epithelium and stroma of BPH and PCa. Results: Comparisons between the hyperplastic tissue and carcinoma showed a higher gene and protein expression of ERα and GPER in samples of CaP compared to BPH. Furthermore, activation of AKT and GSK3β and JNK protein expression of PI3K and c-JUN were significantly increased in CaP tissues while mTOR protein expression and ERK activation p38α and are decreased in this group. ERβ gene expression is increased in PCa but there is no difference in protein expression between the groups. The analysis of gene expression of ERβ isoforms showed decreased ERβ1 and ERβ6 and increased isoforms ERβ2 and ERβ5 in CaP. Expressions were not detected isoforms and ERβ3 ERβ4 in both groups. Our results also showed that the GPER and ERα receptors are positively colocalized in nucleus of stromal cells of BPH and PCa. In addition, the GPER is expressed more intensely in the epithelium of both groups while ERα is expressed with greater intensity in the stroma of PCa. The extent of this tissue revealed increased estrogen in PCa tissue compared to BPH. Conclusions: The present study showed an increase of estrogen and its receptors ERα and GPER in CaP compared to BPH indicating that there is involvement modulation of estrogen in the prostate. Moreover, proteins of MAPK and PI3K pathways can be modulated by estrogenic activity are expressed differently in both groups. The study of estrogen action appears to be important for understanding the progression of prostatic diseases.

Em homens, com o avanço da idade ocorre declínio dos níveis plasmáticos de androgênios, enquanto os níveis de estrogênio permanecem constantes ou aumentados. Isto leva à diminuição da razão androgênio/estrogênio, sugerindo que os estrogênios podem ter um papel no desenvolvimento do câncer de próstata. Os estrogênios estão relacionados à indução da proliferação celular através da sua ligação aos receptores clássicos (ERs) e ao receptor não clássico GPER. Ambos receptores podem ativar as vias de sinalização PI3K e MAPK relacionadas à sobrevivência celular e ter importância no desenvolvimento do câncer de próstata (CaP) e da hiperplasia prostática benigna (HPB). Objetivo: Avaliar a relação dos receptores de estrogênio GPER, ERα, ERβ e suas isoformas com as vias PI3K e MAPK pela análise da expressão gênica e proteica dos receptores de estrogênio ERα, ERβ e GPER, pela análise da expressão de proteínas da via MAPK e PI3K e do estrogênio tecidual nos grupos HPB e CaP. Métodos: Tecidos prostáticos provenientes de CaP e de HPB foram submetidos à extração de RNA, o RNA foi reversamente transcrito para cDNA e avaliado usando q-PCR para a expressão dos receptores de estrogênio GPER, ERα, ERβ e suas isformas. A expressão proteica de GPER, ERα, ERβ, mTOR, PI3K e c-JUN e a ativação da p38α, ERK1/2, JNK, AKT e GSK3β foram analisadas por Western blot. A técnica de imunofluorescência foi utilizada para verificação da colocalização dos receptores GPER e ERα em estroma e epitélio de HPB e CaP. Resultados: Comparações entre os tecidos hiperplásico e de carcinoma indicaram uma maior expressão gênica e proteica de ERα e GPER em amostras de CaP comparadas à HPB. Além disso, a ativação da AKT, GSK3β e JNK e a expressão proteica da PI3K e c-JUN foram significativamente aumentadas nos tecidos de CaP enquanto que a expressão proteica de mTOR e a ativação de p38α e ERK estão diminuídas neste grupo. A expressão gênica do ERβ está aumentada no CaP porém não há diferença na expressão proteica entre os grupos. A análise da expressão gênica das isoformas do ERβ mostrou diminuição de ERβ1 e ERβ6 e aumento das isoformas ERβ2 e ERβ5 no CaP. Não foram detectadas as expressões das isoformas ERβ3 e ERβ4 em ambos os grupos. Nossos resultados também mostraram que os receptores GPER e ERα estão colocalizados no núcleo de células estromais de HPB e CaP. Além disso, o GPER está expresso com maior intensidade no epitélio de ambos os grupos enquanto o ERα está expresso com maior intensidade no estroma do CaP. A medida do estrogênio tecidual mostrou aumento deste no tecido de CaP em relação ao de HPB. Conclusões: O presente estudo mostrou aumento do estrogênio e de seus receptores ERα e GPER no CaP em relação ao HPB indicando que há modulação estrogênica na próstata. Além disso, proteínas das vias MAPK e PI3K que podem ser moduladas pela ação estrogênica estão expressas de maneiras diferentes em ambos os grupos. O estudo da ação estrogênica parece ser importante para o entendimento da progressão das doenças prostáticas. / In men with advancing age decline in plasma levels of androgens occurs while estrogen levels remain constant or increased. This leads to the decrease of the androgen / estrogen, suggesting that estrogens may play a role in the development of prostate cancer. Estrogens are related to the induction of cell proliferation by binding to classical receptors (ERs) and non-classical receptor GPER. Both receptors can activate signaling pathways PI3K and MAPK related to cell survival and have importance in the development of prostate cancer (PCa) and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Objective: To evaluate the relationship of estrogen receptors GPER, ERα, ERβ with the PI3K and MAPK pathways was performed analysis of gene and protein expression of ERα, ERβ and GPER, analysis of protein expression to MAPK and PI3K pathways and tissue estrogen in PCa and BPH groups. Methods: Prostatic tissues from PCa and BPH underwent RNA extraction, RNA was reverse transcribed to cDNA and evaluated using q-PCR for the expression of estrogen receptors GPER, ERα, ERβ and their isformas. Protein expression of GPER, ERα, ERβ, mTOR, PI3K and c-JUN and activation of p38α, ERK1/2, JNK, AKT and GSK3β were analyzed by Western blot. The immunofluorescence technique was used to verify the colocalization of GPER and ERα receptors in epithelium and stroma of BPH and PCa. Results: Comparisons between the hyperplastic tissue and carcinoma showed a higher gene and protein expression of ERα and GPER in samples of CaP compared to BPH. Furthermore, activation of AKT and GSK3β and JNK protein expression of PI3K and c-JUN were significantly increased in CaP tissues while mTOR protein expression and ERK activation p38α and are decreased in this group. ERβ gene expression is increased in PCa but there is no difference in protein expression between the groups. The analysis of gene expression of ERβ isoforms showed decreased ERβ1 and ERβ6 and increased isoforms ERβ2 and ERβ5 in CaP. Expressions were not detected isoforms and ERβ3 ERβ4 in both groups. Our results also showed that the GPER and ERα receptors are positively colocalized in nucleus of stromal cells of BPH and PCa. In addition, the GPER is expressed more intensely in the epithelium of both groups while ERα is expressed with greater intensity in the stroma of PCa. The extent of this tissue revealed increased estrogen in PCa tissue compared to BPH. Conclusions: The present study showed an increase of estrogen and its receptors ERα and GPER in CaP compared to BPH indicating that there is involvement modulation of estrogen in the prostate. Moreover, proteins of MAPK and PI3K pathways can be modulated by estrogenic activity are expressed differently in both groups. The study of estrogen action appears to be important for understanding the progression of prostatic diseases.

Em homens, com o avanço da idade ocorre declínio dos níveis plasmáticos de androgênios, enquanto os níveis de estrogênio permanecem constantes ou aumentados. Isto leva à diminuição da razão androgênio/estrogênio, sugerindo que os estrogênios podem ter um papel no desenvolvimento do câncer de próstata. Os estrogênios estão relacionados à indução da proliferação celular através da sua ligação aos receptores clássicos (ERs) e ao receptor não clássico GPER. Ambos receptores podem ativar as vias de sinalização PI3K e MAPK relacionadas à sobrevivência celular e ter importância no desenvolvimento do câncer de próstata (CaP) e da hiperplasia prostática benigna (HPB). Objetivo: Avaliar a relação dos receptores de estrogênio GPER, ERα, ERβ e suas isoformas com as vias PI3K e MAPK pela análise da expressão gênica e proteica dos receptores de estrogênio ERα, ERβ e GPER, pela análise da expressão de proteínas da via MAPK e PI3K e do estrogênio tecidual nos grupos HPB e CaP. Métodos: Tecidos prostáticos provenientes de CaP e de HPB foram submetidos à extração de RNA, o RNA foi reversamente transcrito para cDNA e avaliado usando q-PCR para a expressão dos receptores de estrogênio GPER, ERα, ERβ e suas isformas. A expressão proteica de GPER, ERα, ERβ, mTOR, PI3K e c-JUN e a ativação da p38α, ERK1/2, JNK, AKT e GSK3β foram analisadas por Western blot. A técnica de imunofluorescência foi utilizada para verificação da colocalização dos receptores GPER e ERα em estroma e epitélio de HPB e CaP. Resultados: Comparações entre os tecidos hiperplásico e de carcinoma indicaram uma maior expressão gênica e proteica de ERα e GPER em amostras de CaP comparadas à HPB. Além disso, a ativação da AKT, GSK3β e JNK e a expressão proteica da PI3K e c-JUN foram significativamente aumentadas nos tecidos de CaP enquanto que a expressão proteica de mTOR e a ativação de p38α e ERK estão diminuídas neste grupo. A expressão gênica do ERβ está aumentada no CaP porém não há diferença na expressão proteica entre os grupos. A análise da expressão gênica das isoformas do ERβ mostrou diminuição de ERβ1 e ERβ6 e aumento das isoformas ERβ2 e ERβ5 no CaP. Não foram detectadas as expressões das isoformas ERβ3 e ERβ4 em ambos os grupos. Nossos resultados também mostraram que os receptores GPER e ERα estão colocalizados no núcleo de células estromais de HPB e CaP. Além disso, o GPER está expresso com maior intensidade no epitélio de ambos os grupos enquanto o ERα está expresso com maior intensidade no estroma do CaP. A medida do estrogênio tecidual mostrou aumento deste no tecido de CaP em relação ao de HPB. Conclusões: O presente estudo mostrou aumento do estrogênio e de seus receptores ERα e GPER no CaP em relação ao HPB indicando que há modulação estrogênica na próstata. Além disso, proteínas das vias MAPK e PI3K que podem ser moduladas pela ação estrogênica estão expressas de maneiras diferentes em ambos os grupos. O estudo da ação estrogênica parece ser importante para o entendimento da progressão das doenças prostáticas. / In men with advancing age decline in plasma levels of androgens occurs while estrogen levels remain constant or increased. This leads to the decrease of the androgen / estrogen, suggesting that estrogens may play a role in the development of prostate cancer. Estrogens are related to the induction of cell proliferation by binding to classical receptors (ERs) and non-classical receptor GPER. Both receptors can activate signaling pathways PI3K and MAPK related to cell survival and have importance in the development of prostate cancer (PCa) and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Objective: To evaluate the relationship of estrogen receptors GPER, ERα, ERβ with the PI3K and MAPK pathways was performed analysis of gene and protein expression of ERα, ERβ and GPER, analysis of protein expression to MAPK and PI3K pathways and tissue estrogen in PCa and BPH groups. Methods: Prostatic tissues from PCa and BPH underwent RNA extraction, RNA was reverse transcribed to cDNA and evaluated using q-PCR for the expression of estrogen receptors GPER, ERα, ERβ and their isformas. Protein expression of GPER, ERα, ERβ, mTOR, PI3K and c-JUN and activation of p38α, ERK1/2, JNK, AKT and GSK3β were analyzed by Western blot. The immunofluorescence technique was used to verify the colocalization of GPER and ERα receptors in epithelium and stroma of BPH and PCa. Results: Comparisons between the hyperplastic tissue and carcinoma showed a higher gene and protein expression of ERα and GPER in samples of CaP compared to BPH. Furthermore, activation of AKT and GSK3β and JNK protein expression of PI3K and c-JUN were significantly increased in CaP tissues while mTOR protein expression and ERK activation p38α and are decreased in this group. ERβ gene expression is increased in PCa but there is no difference in protein expression between the groups. The analysis of gene expression of ERβ isoforms showed decreased ERβ1 and ERβ6 and increased isoforms ERβ2 and ERβ5 in CaP. Expressions were not detected isoforms and ERβ3 ERβ4 in both groups. Our results also showed that the GPER and ERα receptors are positively colocalized in nucleus of stromal cells of BPH and PCa. In addition, the GPER is expressed more intensely in the epithelium of both groups while ERα is expressed with greater intensity in the stroma of PCa. The extent of this tissue revealed increased estrogen in PCa tissue compared to BPH. Conclusions: The present study showed an increase of estrogen and its receptors ERα and GPER in CaP compared to BPH indicating that there is involvement modulation of estrogen in the prostate. Moreover, proteins of MAPK and PI3K pathways can be modulated by estrogenic activity are expressed differently in both groups. The study of estrogen action appears to be important for understanding the progression of prostatic diseases.

O Bisfenol A (BPA) é usado na fabricação de plásticos de policarbonato e resinas epóxi. A exposição pré-natal a esse agente pode causar diversos efeitos, tais como: antecipação da puberdade, hiperplasia de próstata, diminuição do número de espermatozoides, diminuição dos níveis de testosterona, alteração do desenvolvimento e organização tecidual da glândula mamária, diminuição da resposta celular induzida por hormônios, câncer de mama, diabetes, doenças cardiovasculares, alterações das funções de enzimas hepáticas, além de efeitos sobre o desenvolvimento cognitivo. Poucos estudos avaliam os efeitos do BPA sobre as células neuronais, porém existem evidências de que este agente induza a apoptose. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo estudar a neurotoxicidade do BPA, avaliando vias de sinalização que levam a indução da apoptose em cultura primária de hipocampo. As células foram expostas ao BPA nas concentrações de 50, 100, 150, 200, e 250 &#181;M (0,1% DMSO v/v) pelos períodos de 6, 12, 24, e 48 horas para a realização dos ensaios da atividade mitocondrial (MTT) e citotoxicidade pela liberação da enzima Lactato Desidrogenase (LDH). A partir dos resultados de MTT e LDH, foram adotados novos horários de exposição (3, 6 e 9 horas) utilizando somente as concentrações de 200 e 250 &#181;M. Neste novo desenho experimental, foi realizada a quantificação da concentração de BPA na cultura primária por HPLC-PDA, determinação da concentração de Ca2+ intracelular pela quantificação da fluorescência do Fluo-4 AM, caracterização dos mecanismos envolvidos na morte celular por citometria de fluxo e Western Blotting, e avaliação dos receptores de estrógeno ER-&#945; e ER-&#946; por Western Blotting. Nossos resultados apontam que aproximadamente 20% de BPA na concentração de 250 &#181;M após 6 horas de exposição e 18% para a concentração de 200 &#181;M com 9 horas de exposição foram absorvidos pela cultura celular. O ensaio do MTT mostrou que as células expostas a 200 e 250 &#181;M de BPA, por 12, 24 e 48 horas, apresentaram diminuição significativa da função mitocondrial em relação ao controle. Porém, não houve liberação de LDH para o meio de cultura para nenhuma das concentrações de BPA em nenhum dos períodos de incubação, o que sugere que não houve rompimento da membrana plasmática. Foi observada atividade apoptótica somente com a concentração de 250 &#181;M no período de exposição de 6 horas por citometria de fluxo. Não foram encontradas células em necrose, nem alteração na concentração de cálcio intracelular em nenhuma das condições estudadas. Na avaliação dos marcadores de morte celular, observamos aumento da razão de Bax/Bcl-2 para a concentração de 250 &#181;M em todos os períodos de exposição e aumento das caspases 8, 9 e 3 para a concentração de 250 &#181;M no período de exposição de 6 horas, indicando que o BPA deve ativar tanto a via intrínseca como a extrínseca no processo de apoptose. Verificamos ainda, por Western Blotting, que a cultura primária de hipocampo apresenta os receptores de estrógeno ER-&#945; e ER-&#946;. A exposição ao BPA aumentou os ER-&#945; e ER-&#946; avaliados por Western Blotting para as duas concentrações estudadas no período de 6 horas de exposição e, para o período de exposição de 9 horas, houve um aumento do ER-&#945; para a concentração de 250 &#181;M e do ER-&#946; para a concentração de 200 &#181;M. É possível concluir que o BPA pode levar a morte das células neuronais hipocampais por apoptose por ambas as vias intrínseca e extrínseca, sendo o processo de morte celular mais evidente para a concentração de 250 &#181;M no período de 6 horas de exposição. Sugerimos ainda que o aumento observado em ambos os receptores de estrógeno possa representar uma tentativa de interrupção ou reversão do processo de morte celular. / Bisphenol A (BPA) is used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. The prenatal exposure to this agent may cause several effects, such as anticipation of puberty, prostate hyperplasia, reduced number of sperm, reduced testosterone levels, alteration in the development and tissue organization of the mammary gland, decreased cellular response induced by hormones, breast cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, changes in the functions of liver enzymes, and effects on cognitive development. Few studies have evaluated the effects of BPA in neuronal cells, however there are evidences that this agent may induce apoptosis. This work aims to study the neurotoxicity of BPA, by analyzing the signaling pathways of apoptosis in hippocampus primary culture. Cells were exposed to BPA at 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 &#181;M (0.1% DMSO v/v) for 6, 12, 24, and 48 hours for the assay of mitochondrial activity (MTT) and the release of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). From the results of MTT and LDH, new exposure times (3, 6 and 9 hours) and only 200 and 250 &#181;M were used. In this new experimental design we performed the quantification of the BPA concentration in the primary culture by HPLC-PDA, intracellular Ca2+ quantification by Fluo-4 AM assay and the characterization of the mechanisms involved in cell death by flow cytometry and Western Blotting assays. Furthermore, evaluation of the estrogen receptor ER-&#945; and ER-&#946; was done by Western Blotting. Our results demonstrate that about 20% of the BPA concentration of 250 &#181;M after 6 hours of exposure and 18% for the concentration of 200 &#181;M with 9 hours of exposure were absorbed by the cell culture. Cells exposed to 200 and 250 &#181;M of BPA for 12, 24 and 48 hours, showed a significant decrease in mitochondrial function, by the MTT assay, compared to control. However, there was no release of LDH into the culture medium for any of the BPA concentrations in any of incubation times studied, which suggests no rupture of the plasma membrane by BPA. Apoptotic activity was observed after 6 hours of exposure to 250&#181;M BPA by flow cytometry. It was not observed cell necrosis and changes in intracellular calcium concentration in any of the studied conditions. Regarding the cell death markers, exposure to 250 &#181;M BPA in all periods of exposure resulted in an increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio; moreover, an increase in caspase 8, 9 and 3 was detected after exposure to 250 &#181;M BPA for 6 hours. Taken together, these findings indicate that BPA activates both the intrinsic and the extrinsic pathway during the apoptotic process. We also verified by Western Blotting the presence of the estrogen receptors ER-&#945; and ER-&#946; at the primary culture of hippocampus, and that they can be modulated by BPA. The exposure to 200 and 250 &#181;M BPA for 6 hours caused an increase of ER-&#945; and ER-&#946;, however, 9 hours of exposure to 200 &#181;M and 250 &#181;M BPA increased the expression of ER-&#945; and ER-&#946;, respectively. In conclusion, BPA can lead hippocampal neuronal cells to death by both, intrinsic and extrinsic, apoptotic pathways and this process is more evident at 250 &#181;M BPA after 6 hours of exposure. Furthermore, we suggest that the increase of both estrogen receptors might represent an attempt to interrupt or reverse the cell death process.