Alcohol dependence is a major public health concern. Despite the FDA’s approval of multiple anti-relapse drugs, relapse rates remain unacceptably high. Furthermore, cognitive deficits among chronic drinkers are evident and are suggested to contribute to relapse risk. Current evidence suggests that several critical features of alcoholism and alcohol-associated neurodegeneration are mechanistically linked to glutamatergic actions; specifically, they appear positively affected by glutamatergic inhibition, particularly inhibition via polyamine modulation of a subpopulation of n-methyl-d-aspartate receptors. The current project was designed to evaluate the performance of two putative polyamine modulators (JR-220 and CP-101,606) in a variety of screens designed to identify the potential to reduce withdrawal severity, neurotoxicity and relapse risk. Screens included a complex organotypic screen designed to assess neuroprotective potential (Experiment 1), a simple behavioral screen designed to assess withdrawal severity (Experiment 2) as well as several more complex behavioral screens designed to examine cue-conditioning during withdrawal (Experiment 3), relapse behavior (Experiment 4), stress-associated consumption (Experiment 5) and binge-like consumption (Experiment 6). An additional open field experiment (Experiment 7) was conducted in order to address interpretational issues concerning activity in Experiments 2-6. Finally, as a first step in moving beyond simple screening, we expanded our binge screen to adhere more closely to an established, validated model of binge consumption (Experiment 8). While some interpretational issues were noted, taken together, the results from these experiments provide strong evidence for both drugs as potential pharmacotherapies for alcoholism and further implicate polyamines and NR2B subunits as critical mechanisms in ETOH consumption and withdrawal.

L’effet neuroprotecteur des agents anesthésiques est maintenant établi depuis plus de 30ans. Cependant, les mécanismes impliqués restent imparfaitement élucidés. A cours de cetravail nous avons étudié deux volets de leur protection :La première partie porte sur l’implication de la transmission glutaminergique dans leurseffets neuroprotecteurs directs, c'est-à-dire lorsqu’ils sont utilisés au cours d’une l’ischémiecérébrale. Nous avons étudié deux agents anesthésiques de classe distincte: le propofol et lesévoflurane sur des co-cultures de neurones et d’astrocytes corticaux de rat soumis à uneprivation en oxygène et en glucose transitoire (POG). Nous avons ainsi observé que laprésence de propofol ou de sévoflurane pendant la POG prévenait la mort neuronale,l’accumulation de glutamate extracellulaire et la diminution de la capture du glutamateinduites par l’ischémie. Nous avons également montré que cette restauration partielle del’activité de capture du glutamate impliquait des transporteurs distincts entre le propofol et lesévoflurane.La deuxième partie a porté sur la neuroprotection obtenue par un préconditionnement (PC)pharmacologique liée à l’utilisation avant l’ischémie d’agents anesthésique volatils. Nousavons tout d’abord confirmé in vitro l’existence d’une telle protection avec le sévoflurane etmis en évidence le rôle primordial, au cours de cette protection, des canaux potassiques ATPdépendantset des radicaux libres. Puis sur un modèle in vivo d’occlusion transitoire del’artère cérébrale moyenne, le PC par sévoflurane a induit une neuroprotection supérieure àcelle obtenue avec l’utilisation de sévoflurane uniquement pendant l’ischémie. Cependantcette protection est transitoire et ne perdure pas dans le temps. Le sévoflurane ne fait queretarder, sans l’empêcher, la mort neuronale liée à l’apoptose. Il offre cependant une fenêtrethérapeutique intéressante. / The neuroprotective effect of anesthetic agents is now established for over 30 years.However, the mechanisms involved remains to be fully explored. This work focuses on twoneuroprotective strategies:The first part is on the involvement of glutamatergic transmission in their directneuroprotective effects. We studied the effect of two separate classes of anesthetic agents:propofol and sevoflurane on co-cultures of cortical neurons and astrocytes from rats subjectedto a transient oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) mimicking cerebral ischemia. Weobserved that the presence of propofol or sevoflurane during OGD prevented neuronal death,accumulation of extracellular glutamate and decreased uptake of glutamate induced byischemia. We also demonstrated that this partial restoration of glutamate uptake mediated bypropofol and sevoflurane involved differential transporters.The second part deals with the neuroprotection achieved by pharmacologicalpreconditioning with regard to the use of volatile anesthetic agents before ischemia. We firstconfirmed in vitro the existence of such protection with sevoflurane. We also highlighted therole of ATP-dependent potassium channels and reactive oxygen species in sevofluranepreconditioning-induced neuroprotection. Then, using an in vivo model of focal transientischemia, we showed that sevoflurane preconditioning significantly improved functionaloutcome and reduced infarct volume. However, this protection was transient. Sevofluraneonly delayed the neuronal death associated with apoptosis but offers an interesting therapeuticwindow.

Les connexions entre les cellules sensorielles et les neurones primaires de l’oreille interne, appelées synapses sont essentielles à l’encodage et la transmission des informations auditives et vestibulaires vers le cerveau. C’est aussi une zone extrêmement exposée et fragile qui semble impliquée dans de nombreuses atteintes de l’audition et de l’équilibration, mais également au cours du vieillissement. Des récupérations spontanées de l’audition et de l’équilibre ont été observées suite à ces différentes atteintes chez l’Homme. Dans le cadre de ma thèse, j’ai étudié d’une part, comment des atteintes sélectives de ces synapses pouvaient générer des troubles de l’oreille interne chez l’animal, et d’autre part, comment des mécanismes de réparation spontanée de ces synapses supportent la récupération des fonctions auditives et vestibulaires. Nous avons constaté qu’il existe une hétérogénéité dans les capacités de réparations synaptiques entre la cochlée et le vestibule. L’étude des mécanismes moléculaires mis en jeu dans cette réparation synaptique pourrait ouvrir la voie au développement de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques pour les atteintes de l’oreille interne. / Inner ear connections between primary neurons and sensory cells, called synapses are essential for encoding and transmitting auditory and vestibular information to the brain. It is also an extremely exposed and fragile area that is involved in many hearing and balance disorders, but also during aging. Spontaneous hearing and balance recoveries have been observed following these different injuries in humans. In the context of my thesis, I studied, on the one hand, how selective lesions of these synapses could generate inner ear disorders in animals, and on the other hand, how spontaneous repair mechanisms of these synapses support auditory and vestibular functions recovery. We found that there is heterogeneity in synaptic repair capabilities between the cochlea and the vestibule. The study of the molecular mechanisms involved in this synaptic repair could pave the way for the development of new therapeutic strategies against various inner ear disorders.

Background and motivation: The event of neural Ca2+ overload is known to have several deleterious effects resulting in cell death caused by ischaemia, hypoglycaemia, hypoxia and several neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and AIDS-related dementia. In vitro models for the investigation of the mechanisms involved in Ca2+ overload include brain slice preparations, neuronal cultures as well as acutely isolated neurons, mostly from the hippocampus and cortical brain areas. Additional models for investigating Ca2+ overload may bring about new knowledge to areas of the phenomenon that are still unresolved. Methodology: In this study, several theoretical Ca2+ overload-related interventions were combined aimed at inducing cell death in acutely isolated rat dorsal root ganglia. To elucidate the mechanism/s involved in the cell death observed following exposure to this intervention, the effects of several alterations to the intervention's composition were assessed. This examination was extended by the addition of several recognized and potential protective compounds to the intervention. Cell death was indicated by the trypan blue exclusion assay and recorded after 18 hours exposure to the interventions by counting live and dead neurons under a light microscope. Results and conclusions: The goal was to evaluate the possible application of dorsal root ganglia as a model for neural Ca2+ overload outside the brain. Since Ca2+w as required for cell death to be induced, it is concluded that the observed cell death was indeed primarily due to Ca2+ overload. Besides extracellular Ca2+, KC1-induced depolarization was also required for cell death to be induced, while the antagonists did not demonstrate significant protection against cell death. Based on the results, the mechanism of Ca2+ overload could not be defined beyond doubt, but the voltage activated Ca2+ channels are likely to be involved. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Physiology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are glutamate-gated ionotropic receptors. When activated, NMDARs let extracellular sodium and calcium ions enter neurons. This calcium influx, depending on its duration, intensity and the presence of nearby signalling proteins can signal to synaptic plasticity. Additionally, physiological NMDAR activity promotes pro-survival cascades and gene transcription, whereas both lack of activation and overactivation of these receptors trigger pro-death signals. Several neurodegenerative pathologies such as stroke/ischemia and Alzheimer’s disease are thought to involve NMDAR overactivation, so-called “excitotoxicity”, but since NMDARs are important for normal neuronal physiology, potential therapeutical approaches needs to go beyond simple antagonism. Here, we studied the receptor subunit composition and the molecular cascades downstream of the receptor activation to try and isolate the pro-death pathways in NMDAR-mediated excitotoxicity. We found that the NR2 subunit composition did not dictate the type of NMDAR-mediated signals, as receptors comprised of NR2B subunits were able to signal to death, survival and plasticity. However, we also found that the intracellular tail of the NR2B subunit was more efficient at triggering neuronal death compared to the NR2A C-terminus, which suggests that different pro-death signalling complexes are associated to each subunit. Two pro-death signals, the p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) cascades, are key mediators of neuronal excitotoxicity. In a non-neuronal cell line, NMDAR-mediated cell death could be reconstituted but was found to rely solely on JNK and not p38. This was due to the lack of pro-death signals from the NR2B-PDZ domain, a cytoplasmic interacting domain which forms a signalling cassette with the neuronal proteins PSD-95 and neuronal nitric oxide synthase. This PDZ-ligand recruits the p38 cascade in neurons, but was absent in non-neuronal cells. The pro-death p38 pathway could be inhibited in neurons by disrupting the PDZ domain interactions, which protects against excitotoxicity. This disruption was not affecting normal synaptic transmission, potentiation or survival signalling, suggesting that this could be a therapeutically viable avenue. Thus, this work has expanded the understanding of how NMDAR subunits and their cytoplasmic domains mediate signalling leading to a variety of cellular outcomes; a crucial point for the development of a strategy specifically targeting NMDAR- mediated pro-death signalling.

Background and motivation: The event of neural Ca2+ overload is known to have several deleterious effects resulting in cell death caused by ischaemia, hypoglycaemia, hypoxia and several neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and AIDS-related dementia. In vitro models for the investigation of the mechanisms involved in Ca2+ overload include brain slice preparations, neuronal cultures as well as acutely isolated neurons, mostly from the hippocampus and cortical brain areas. Additional models for investigating Ca2+ overload may bring about new knowledge to areas of the phenomenon that are still unresolved. Methodology: In this study, several theoretical Ca2+ overload-related interventions were combined aimed at inducing cell death in acutely isolated rat dorsal root ganglia. To elucidate the mechanism/s involved in the cell death observed following exposure to this intervention, the effects of several alterations to the intervention's composition were assessed. This examination was extended by the addition of several recognized and potential protective compounds to the intervention. Cell death was indicated by the trypan blue exclusion assay and recorded after 18 hours exposure to the interventions by counting live and dead neurons under a light microscope. Results and conclusions: The goal was to evaluate the possible application of dorsal root ganglia as a model for neural Ca2+ overload outside the brain. Since Ca2+w as required for cell death to be induced, it is concluded that the observed cell death was indeed primarily due to Ca2+ overload. Besides extracellular Ca2+, KC1-induced depolarization was also required for cell death to be induced, while the antagonists did not demonstrate significant protection against cell death. Based on the results, the mechanism of Ca2+ overload could not be defined beyond doubt, but the voltage activated Ca2+ channels are likely to be involved. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Physiology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Implications for the endocannabinoid system in global cerebral ischemia has not been clearly defined. Ischemia produces an excitotoxic environment that is severely damaging to neurons, causing degradation of cell membrane and ultimately cell death. Contradicting research suggests both the benefits and adverse effects of endocannabinoids on neurological injury. Due to the excitotoxic nature of ischemic injury, and the mechanisms at play with endocannabinoid agonists, such as increased transmission of dopamine and glutamate, it is suspected that endocannabinoid antagonists, such as AM251, may a provide cell protection.40 male Wistar rats were separated into 4 groups (n=10/group). The first group of rats were administered AM251 (2 mg/kg, i.p) 30 minutes prior to global cerebral ischemia (four vessel occlusion), while the second group were given AM251, 30 minutes prior to sham surgery. Finally the last two groups were given a vehicle control instead of AM251 and given either ischemia or the sham surgery. Behavioural testing, open field test and elevated plus maze, took place after a five day recovery period following ischemia. Immunohistochemical analyses were performed using to mark tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and dopamine receptor 1(DRD1) to compare dopamine function amongst groups. Cell survival was also evaluated using thionin staining. Ischemia induced significant reduction in dopamine within the mesolimbic circuit, including: ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens, CA3 & CA1 of the hippocampus, and basolateral amygdala. These reductions in dopamine transmission by global ischemia were partially or fully reversed when AM251 was given beforehand. Furthermore, cell survival was increased in the CA1 from treatment of AM251. Behavioural results show similar results that AM251 reversed emotional irregularities associated with ischemia insult. The endocannabinoid antagonist AM251 improves deficits in dopamine function, prevents cell death and regulates emotionality when given prior global cerebral ischemia.

An increasing body of evidence points to a key role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in chronic and acute neurodegenerative diseases. Indeed, markers of ER stress are common features of neurons destined to die in these conditions. In the present study we demonstrate that PUMA, a BH3-only member of the Bcl-2 family is essential for ER stress-induced cell death. PUMA is known to be a key transcriptional target of p53, however we have found that ER stress triggers PUMA induction and cell death through a p53-independent mechanism involving instead the ER stress inducible transcription factor ATF4. Specifically, we demonstrate that ectopic expression of ATF4 sensitizes neurons to ER stress induced apoptosis, and that ATF4-deficient neurons exhibit markedly reduced levels of PUMA expression and cell death. However, chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments suggest that ATF4 does not directly regulate the PUMA promoter. Rather, we found that ATF4 induces expression of the transcription factor CHOP, and that CHOP in turn directly activates PUMA induction. Specifically, we demonstrate that CHOP binds to the PUMA promoter during ER stress and that CHOP knockdown attenuates PUMA induction and neuronal apoptosis. In summary, we have identified a key signaling pathway in ER stress induced neuronal death involving ATF4-CHOP mediated transactivation of the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member PUMA. Protein aggregates and markers of ER stress response have also been observed in dying neurons in several animal models of cerebral ischemia. Therefore, to decipher the significance of the ER stress apoptotic response, we investigate the role of ATF4-CHOP signaling pathway in ischemic neuronal injury. Ischemic stroke results from a transient or permanent reduction in cerebral blood flow in the brain. In spite of much research in trying to develop therapeutic strategies, most clinical trials have failed. These failures demonstrate that effective treatments require a more complete understanding of molecular signals that lead to neuronal death. However, stroke is a complex scenario since distinct mechanisms may involve in rapid and/or delayed neuronal death. The signaling pathways regulating these mechanisms however are not fully defined. Previous studies had suggested that ER stress playing a pivotal role in post-ischemic neuronal death. Yet, the relevance of ER stress signals was not fully known in ischemic neuronal injury. Accordingly, this thesis research attempts to explore the functional role of ER stress -inducible pathway, ATF4-CHOP axis, in different models of neuronal death (delayed and excitotoxic cell death) evoked by ischemia. The data indicates that ATF4 is essential in delayed type of death in vitro. In focal ischemia model (tMCAO) ATF4 also plays a role as a mediator of death signal in vivo. However, CHOP function looks more complex, and our data did not support the role of CHOP in ischemic neuronal death.

Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / O cérebro infantil humano submetido à hipóxia-isquemia (HI) apresenta perda de oligodendrócitos, hipomielinização, astrogliose, alterações no desenvolvimento cortical e no comportamento motor, incluindo a paralisia cerebral. O cerebelo desempenha um importante papel no controle motor e diversos danos vêm sendo observados em humanos e animais que sofreram HI. A excitotoxicidade glutamatérgica é frequentemente associada à HI e junções celulares podem ser responsáveis pela transferência de moléculas capazes de modular os danos decorrentes. Dados prévios de nosso grupo utilizando um modelo de HI pré-natal em ratos demonstraram danos permanentes na estrutura cerebelar, indicando que os efeitos deletérios da HI pré-natal podem ser mantidos até a vida adulta. O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar os níveis de conexinas, receptores e transportadores de glutamato ao longo do desenvolvimento do cerebelo HI, e avaliar a configuração das junções celulares em culturas de astrócitos derivadas do cerebelo de ratos submetidos a esse modelo. Ratas no 18 dia de gestação, após anestesia, tiveram as quatro artérias uterinas obstruídas por 45 minutos (Grupo HI). Animais controle tiveram os úteros expostos sem sofrer a obstrução (Grupo SH). A gestação prosseguiu e apenas filhotes nascidos a termo foram utilizados. Os animais foram decapitados aos 2 (P2), 9 (P9), 16 (P16),23 (P23), 30 (P30), 45 (P45) e 90 (P90) dias pós-natal. Os cerebelos foram submetidos à técnica de Western blotting utilizando os anticorpos anti-NR2B, anti-GluR3, anti-EAAT1, anti-GFAP e anti-Cx43. Para a cultura de astrócitos foram utilizados cerebelos de animais P2. Após terem atingido confluência, as células foram fixadas e imunomarcadas com os anticorpos anti-Cx43, anti-GFAP, anti-nestina e anti-A2B5. Nossos resultados demonstram diferenças nos níveis de GluR3 durante o desenvolvimento do cerebelo SH e HI, havendo uma redução significativa da expressão desta subunidade no grupo HI em P9. Por outro lado, não foram verificadas alterações nos níveis de NR2B e de GFAP entre os grupos nas diferentes idades. Observou-se redução significativa de Cx43 em animais HI em P2 bem como nos astrócitos HI em cultura, os quais também apresentaram alterações morfológicas e diferenças na expressão do marcador A2B5. A alteração referente a GluR3 no grupo HI pode ser causada pela redução da arborização das células de Purkinje e pela redução no número de precursores de oligodendrócitos no cerebelo de animais HI em P9, já observadas em nosso laboratório. A diminuição de Cx43 indica que a passagem de substâncias por canais astrocitários pode estar reduzida e contribuir para a expansão dos danos persistentes descritos em HI. Alterações morfológicas e na expressão de marcadores da diferenciação de astrócitos podem refletir os potenciais efeitos de HI sobre a maturação destas células a longo-prazo. Nossos resultados apontam que a HI sistêmica pré-natal pode ser responsável por alterações que caracterizam a excitotoxicidade glutamatérgica. Ressaltamos também a importância da comunicação entre astrócitos como estratégia neuroprotetora nesta lesão. / Infant human brains submitted to hypoxia-ischemia show oligodendrocyte loss, hypomelination, astrogliosis, cortical development and motor behavior impairments, including cerebral palsy. Cerebellum plays a critical role in motor control and many damages have been demonstrated in humans and animals who suffered HI. Glutamatergic excitotoxicity is usually associated to HI and cellular junctions may be responsible for molecular traffic, being able to modulate HI harm effects. Previous data from our group using a modified model of prenatal HI in rats have shown long-lasting damages in cerebellar structure, indicating that deleterious effects of prenatal HI may be sustained until adult life. The objective of this study was to characterize connexin (Cx) and glutamate receptors and transporters levels during the development of HI cerebellum and to evaluate cellular junctions in astrocyte cultures derived from the cerebella of rats submitted to this same model. Rats on the 18th gestation day were anesthetized, had their uterine horns exposed and the four uterine arteries were clamped for 45 minutes (HI group). Control animals had the uterine horns exposed but no arteries were clamped (SH group). Gestation proceeded after surgery and only pups born at term were used. The animals were decapitated at 2 (P2), 9 (P9), 16 (P16), 23 (P23), 30 (P30), 45 (P45) e 90 (P90) postnatal days. Cerebella were submitted to Western blotting using anti-NR2B, anti-GluR3, anti-EAAT1, anti-GFAP and anti-Cx43 antibodies. P2 cerebella were used in astrocyte primary cultures. After they had achieved confluence, the cells were fixed and immunostained with anti-Cx43, anti-GFAP, anti-nestin and anti-A2B5 antibodies. Our results demonstrate differences in GluR3 levels along cerebellum development of SH and HI animals, with a significant decrease of this subunit expression in HI group at P9. On the other hand, we did not observe any variation in NR2B and GFAP levels between groups at different ages. We also observed a significant decreased Cx43 expression in HI group at P2 as well as in cultured astrocytes, which had morphological modifications and different A2B5 marker expression. The modification related to GluR3 receptor in HI group may be caused by impaired dendritic arborization or by a reduced number of oligodendrocyte progenitors in the cerebellum of HI animals at P9, already described in our laboratory. Cx43 reduction indicates that substances traffic through astrocytic channels may be impaired and contribute to lesion expansion of permanent damages observed in HI. Morphological and markers expression changes related to astrocyte differentiation may reflect potential effects of HI on cell maturation at long-term. Our results confirm that prenatal systemic HI may be responsible for changes that characterize glutamatergic excitotoxicity. We also reassure the importance of astrocyte communication as a neuroprotective strategy in this kind of lesion.

Magister Pharmaceuticae - MPharm / Recent scientific findings have highlighted the beneficial roles of polycyclic cage compounds in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Further interest into the chemistry of these compounds is stimulated by their remarkable ability to improve the pharmacokinetics profile of known neuroprotective agents. As potent lipophilic scaffolds, they can be employed to target the brain delivery of desired compounds. Inflammation is a key mediator of neuronal cell's degeneration as activated microglia and other inflammatory mediators propagate oxidative damage and neuronal loss. Epidemiological and clinical evidence suggests that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) slow down the progression and onset of neurodegenerative diseases. The beneficial effects of NSAIDs in ND can be attributed to their ability to inhibit cyclooxygenase enzymes thereby halting the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (PG) which are powerful mediators of inflammation. NSAIDs also inhibit the expression of pro- inflammatory genes. Despite their potential neuroprotective activity, NSAIDs are poorly lipophilic due to the presence of polar carboxylic acid groups and will therefore ionise at physiological pH, deterring them from reaching the desired site of action in the central nervous system (CNS).