The purpose of this basic qualitative study was to gather data on the training that was provided for school staff regarding the implementation of the restorative justice program. This study also investigated elementary school administrators' perceptions after implementation of a restorative justice program and its impact on student discipline in one rural Virginia school division. In the Commonwealth of Virginia, 22% of students are African American, but they make up 54% of students who have been suspended from school for the 2018-2019 school year (VDOE, 2021). School divisions can benefit from this qualitative study to address discipline disproportionality by implementing restorative justice practices. Findings indicated restorative justice had an impact in reducing student discipline issues and enhancing teacher-student relationships, as reported by participants. However, challenges like teacher buy-in were also identified. Considerations for successful implementation include restorative justice training for school administrators and teachers, with an emphasis on proactive practices such as classroom circles. In addition, improved communication between students and teachers was noted as a positive outcome of this restorative justice program. Elementary school administrators should provide support for restorative justice practices to strengthen teacher-student relationships. They should also gather discipline data before and after implementing these practices to assess their impact. Consistent training for all staff within a school division is crucial, and administrators should involve staff in the implementation process to foster buy-in. Findings from this study indicate more research is needed on the impact restorative justice practices has on student discipline in K-12 public schools. / Doctor of Education / The purpose of this basic qualitative study was to gather data on the training that was provided for school staff regarding the implementation of the restorative justice program. This study also investigated elementary school administrators' perceptions after implementation of a restorative justice program and its impact on student discipline in one rural Virginia school division. This qualitative study investigated the viewpoints of elementary school administrators following the implementation of a restorative justice program, examining how it influenced student discipline. Findings indicated restorative justice helped reduce student discipline issues and improved teacher-student relationships. However, challenges like teacher buy-in were also identified. To implement restorative justice practices successfully, training for administrators and staff is important, focusing on proactive practices like classroom circles. The program also led to better communication between students and teachers. School administrators should support these practices, collect and analyze discipline data, ensure consistent training for all staff, and involve them in the process to gain their support. Findings from this study indicate more research is needed on the impact restorative justice practices has on student discipline in K-12 public schools.

Maintaining a safe and orderly learning environment in schools is fundamental to the greater goals of education, but determining optimal disciplinary responses to student misbehavior is often complicated. While there is an abundance of research that speaks to the negative impact of exclusionary discipline (e.g., suspension, expulsion or any other disciplinary response that removes a student from the traditional classroom setting) on student behavioral and academic outcomes, there is an absence of work that examines if, when, and to what extent a student is actually better off receiving non-exclusionary dispositions. Using multivariate regression analysis on a unique dataset from an urban Texas school district, this study directly compares the impact of exclusionary vs. non-exclusionary discipline on student outcomes (controlling for student characteristics, school characteristics, and offense type). Additionally, the study examines the extent to which offense type influences the relationship between disposition and student outcomes. The study’s findings suggest that a student is generally worse off in terms of academic progress and risk of future offenses when she/he receives an exclusionary disposition for any disciplinary infraction. The impact of exclusion, however, was shown to vary by student offense. / text

Exclusionary discipline practices are often considered to be generally ineffective and inequitable, however, they are one of the more common disciplinary practices used in schools today. Although there are many positive alternatives to school exclusion, there are limited disciplinary practices specifically intended to target discipline with racial equity in mind. The GREET-STOP-PROMPT (GSP) intervention, developed by Cook and colleagues (2018), is one intervention found in the literature explicitly created to reduce racial discipline disparities. Although there is currently limited research evaluating the GSP intervention, the results indicate it to be a potentially promising method of equitably addressing student behavior. The purpose of the current study was to extend the literature to examine the effects of the GSP intervention on racial discipline disparities, as well as students’ academic engagement and disruptive behavior in the classroom. The current study evaluated the GSP intervention across three elementary classrooms in a rural school district located in the southeastern United States. Results indicated the GSP intervention did not have meaningful effects on student exclusion, racial disparities, academic engagement, and disruptive behavior, which ultimately failed to support the current researcher’s hypotheses. However, there was limited discipline data available to draw conclusions specifically related to the intervention’s effect on student exclusion and discipline disparities. Further exploration is necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of the GSP intervention in addressing student behavior in the classroom and reducing racial discipline disparities.

The purpose of this study was to determine what change, if any, existed in the number and percentage of student discipline referrals and exclusionary discipline practices of students by race, gender, and those with disabilities after the introduction of a division-wide, systematic approach to discipline that aligned behavior, social-emotional wellness, and academics into one decision-making framework. This research used quantitative data with a nonexperimental descriptive design. The researcher sought to answer the questions: 1. What is the number and percentage of students receiving an office discipline referral by race, gender, and those with a disability? 2. What is the number and percentage of students receiving suspensions, both in-school and out-of-school, related to office discipline referrals for students by race, gender, and those with a disability? 3. How has the number and percentage changed for incidents over the three years of implementing a systematic approach that aligns behavior, social-emotional wellness, and academics into one decision-making framework for students of different races, genders, and those with a disability? 4. How has the number and percentage changed for consequences over the three years of implementing a systematic approach that behavior, social-emotional wellness, and academics into one decision-making framework for students of different races, genders, and those with a disability? This study included 39 schools (24 elementary schools, seven middle schools, five high schools, one middle/high school, one specialty high school, and one alternative school) of an urban school division in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The selected division leadership team established an outcome to decrease office discipline referrals (ODRs), In-School Suspension (ISS), and Out-of-School Suspensions (OSS) in order to increase instructional time in the classroom. The sampled schools had evidence of varying levels of implementation. This study examined the effects of a multi-tiered system of support on student discipline. This study found that the proportion of students receiving ODRs was not reduced by the implementation of a multitiered framework. Additionally, the number of ODRs increased for most subgroups over the period of the study. However, the study did find that the disproportionality for SWD decreased for ODRs. The study also found that the gap in proportions between Black students receiving ISS and White students receiving ISS increased. Despite the growing disparity between Black and White students, disproportionality for SWD receiving ISS decreased. Conversely, the proportion of Black students receiving OSS decreased over the 3-year period of the study. In conjunction to the findings related to ISS, the disproportionality of SWD receiving OSS decreased during this study period. Finally, the study found that the proportion of female students receiving LTS increased over the 3-year period of the study. This study did not include an analysis of the critical features of a multi-tiered system of support. / Doctor of Education / The purpose of this study was to determine what change, if any, existed in the number and percentage of student discipline referrals and exclusionary discipline practices of students by race, gender, and those with disabilities after the introduction of a division-wide, systematic approach to discipline that aligned behavior, social-emotional wellness, and academics into one decision-making framework. This research used quantitative data with a nonexperimental descriptive design. This study found that the proportion of students receiving ODRs was not reduced by the implementation of a multitiered framework. Additionally, the number of ODRs increased for most subgroups over the period of the study. However, the study did find that the disproportionality for SWD decreased for ODRs. The study also found that the gap in proportions between Black students receiving ISS and White students receiving ISS increased. Despite the growing disparity between Black and White students, disproportionality for SWD receiving ISS decreased. Conversely, the proportion of Black students receiving OSS decreased over the 3-year period of the study. In conjunction to the findings related to ISS, the disproportionality of SWD receiving OSS decreased during this study period. Finally, the study found that the proportion of female students receiving LTS increased over the 3-year period of the study. This study did not include an analysis of the critical features of a multi-tiered system of support.

The purpose of this study was to analyze high school graduation rates from prior academic achievement, attendance, and behavior in one school system over 4 years. The study addressed three questions, which of the students included in this study dropped out of high school, how exclusionary discipline affected students' attendance at school and their ability to graduate. In addition, for the students who dropped out, what was their exclusionary discipline rate, what was their chronic absenteeism rate, and what was the leading cause of students not graduating on time? By examining specific predictors, we can gain insight into why some students fail to graduate high school on time or drop out early. Keeping track of essential indicators such as attendance, behavior, and academic achievement in the classroom will increase the likelihood of students graduating after 4 years of high school. Using the comparative case study approach, this study compared four cohorts of students who graduated from one urban high school. A correlational, nonexperimental design was used. After the data were analyzed, using descriptive statistics and mean averages of the variables, it was discovered that, across three of the four study cohort clusters, there was a consistent overrepresentation of Hispanic male English language learners (ELLs) who experienced some type of exclusionary discipline, and who failed their Standards of Learning English reading/writing and mathematics assessments leading to them dropping out of school. As a result of tracking students' academics, attendance, and behaviors, schools can design professional development for teachers and school administrators to identify at-risk students early and assist them in preventing failure. In the mid-Atlantic region of the United States, academic warning indicator systems must be more representative of diverse student populations. This research supplements past fieldwork on this topic. / Doctor of Education / The purpose of this study was to analyze high school graduation rates from prior academic achievement, attendance, and behavior in one school system over 4 years. The study addressed three questions, which of the students included in this study dropped out of high school, how exclusionary discipline affected students' attendance at school and their ability to graduate. In addition, for the students who dropped out, what was their exclusionary discipline rate, what was their chronic absenteeism rate, and what was the leading cause of students not graduating on time? Using the comparative case study approach, this study compared four cohorts of students who graduated from one urban high school. A correlational, nonexperimental design was used. After the data were analyzed, using descriptive statistics and mean averages of the variables, it was discovered that, across three of the four study cohort clusters, there was a consistent overrepresentation of Hispanic male English language learners (ELLs) who experienced some type of exclusionary discipline and who failed their Standards of Learning English reading/writing and mathematics assessments leading to them dropping out of school. As a result of tracking students' academics, attendance, and behaviors, schools can design professional development for teachers and school administrators to identify at-risk students early and assist them in preventing failure.

Students with disabilities are highly at-risk for administrative disciplinary actions that remove them from school for misconduct. School leaders have the authority and expertise to reduce the amount of these removals by reconsidering their current methods for discipline, reflecting on how these affect their students, and making changes to student consequences. The purpose of this study was to determine what highly skilled principals in the field have found to be the most effective strategies in reducing or eliminating out-of-school suspensions for students with disabilities. This insight is invaluable to the discussion on next steps to close the discipline gap between special education and regular education students. This study used a Delphi model for research building consensus through three rounds of surveys. This input was collected from a panel of 15 principals from 13 school divisions across Virginia that were identified as having already achieved success in eliminating out-of-school suspensions for students with disabilities. The panel concluded that principals must ensure a positive relationship with every student, use alternative, logical, and authentic consequences, and identify and implement individualized supports and accommodations when addressing student misconduct to eliminate out-of-school suspensions for their students with disabilities. Principals should implement practical strategies that proactively build positive relationships and help them better understand the child as an individual in order to reduce or eliminate suspensions in their schools. / Doctor of Education / Students with disabilities are highly at-risk for administrative disciplinary actions that remove them from school for misconduct. School leaders have the authority and expertise to reduce the amount of these removals by reconsidering their current methods for discipline, reflecting on how these affect their students, and making changes to student consequences. The purpose of this study was to determine what highly skilled principals in the field have found to be the most effective strategies in reducing or eliminating out-of-school suspensions for students with disabilities. This insight is invaluable to the discussion on next steps to close the discipline gap between special education and regular education students. This study used surveys to gather input and find agreement on best practices from a panel of elementary school principals from many school divisions across Virginia. The panel concluded that principals must ensure a positive relationship with every student, use alternative, logical, and authentic consequences, and identify and implement individualized supports and accommodations when addressing student misconduct to eliminate out-of-school suspensions for their students with disabilities. Principals should implement practical strategies that proactively build positive relationships and help them better understand the child as an individual in order to reduce or eliminate suspensions in their schools.

Exclusionary discipline in school contributes to gender and racial disproportionality in the juvenile justice system and marginalizes African American girls. Using the social justice and rational choice theories as the foundation, the purpose of this case study was to explore the relationship between the criminalization of behavior in schools, racial bias, and gender stereotypes contribute to the overrepresentation of the school to prison pipeline in Virginia. The central research question focused on the relationship between the criminalization of behavior in schools, racial bias, and gender stereotypes on the overrepresentation of African American girls in the school to prison pipeline. Employing a qualitative case study design, data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 8 African American women (ages 20-30) and surveys from 12 educators. Other data included school discipline and juvenile justice reports from the Virginia Department of Education and Office of Juvenile Justice. The interview data were coded and analyzed using matrix and thematic analysis. Three findings emerged from the thematic analysis from document data. First, participants perceive diversionary programs, community partnership and restorative justice programs create safe and positive learning environments. Second, there are opportunities for policymakers to use their influence to promote social equity. Finally, zero tolerance policies are ineffective. The positive social change implications from this study include recommendations to policymakers to implement restorative justice programs to ensure that all students learn in a positive environment. These actions will benefit all students in public schools and decrease racial disparities in schools and the juvenile justice system.

The purpose of this dissertation study was to consider the ways in which middle school students made meaning of their experience with exclusionary discipline, specifically in-school suspension (ISS). While ISS has historically been positioned as an alternative to exclusionary discipline, ISS programs are often designed in ways that are exclusionary. Current research on exclusionary discipline points to the ways in which suspensions and expulsions impact students academically, socially, and emotionally. Very little of that research, however, considers the perspectives of the students who have been the recipients of exclusionary discipline. Thus, seeking to more fully understand the lived experiences of students who have been in ISS, I chose to apply a phenomenological methodology to the study. The research took place in a large school system in the Southeast, specifically with 13 middle school students in grades six through eight. The participants had been suspended between four and 14 times, for between eight and 37 days. Situating the study within a social constructionist framework, I viewed student behavior as socially constructed within interactions with school personnel. Drawing on an interpretive approach to phenomenological inquiry, I developed verbal portraits of each student in the form of first person accounts of their experiences with ISS. I also conducted a thematic analysis of the 13 interviews, developing five themes that illustrated how they made meaning of their experience. The themes, expressed in the words of the participants, are: (1) Gettin’ Written Up, (2) There are Some Teachers, (3) Sometimes it’s Boring. Sometimes it’s Fun. Sometimes it’s Torture. (4) The ISS Teacher’s a Nice Lady with a Snoozy Attitude, and (5) Our Learning Time. Based on these findings, implications are presented for both educators and educational researchers. Implications include (1) the need for students’ input into educational decisions and educational research, (2) the need to research and design ISS programs that benefit students rather than simply punish them, (3) the need for discussions around teachers who bully students and the ways in which students resist such treatment (or don’t), and (4) the need to further investigate the role of the ISS teacher in student discipline.

Exclusionary discipline is a consequence of behavior for students who break the student code of conduct. Extensive research about the effects that exclusionary discipline can have on secondary students, as evidenced by reduced graduation rates, has been conducted; but, research studies investigating the potential impact that exclusionary discipline can have on the academic outcomes of students at the elementary level have yet to be conducted. The use of exclusionary discipline is overrepresented in students with low socio-economic (SES) backgrounds; large populations of low-SES students are educated at Title I schools that receive federal funding to support academic growth. The purpose of this causal-comparative, non-experimental study was to investigate the impact that exclusionary discipline consequences had on fifth-grade students who attended all of the elementary schools within one north Texas school district during the 2018-2019 school year. In conjunction with the examination of the effect that the assignment of exclusionary discipline consequences can have on the academic outcomes of fifth-grade students, student-specific variables such as attendance at a Title I or non-Title I campus, student race, timing of exclusionary discipline assignment, and students in various educational programs were investigated to determine the potential impact of exclusionary discipline on fifth-grade students by student subgroup. Archival data such as the number of days a student spent in exclusionary discipline, student demographics, and students' scores on the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR) standardized test scores in reading and mathematics were utilized. A summary of findings, implications for administrators and schools, and recommendations for future research is also presented.

The school-to-prison pipeline is an expansive issue that impacts the educational and criminal justice systems in the United States. Traditionally, the research has linked the prevalence of the pipeline to factors based within school systems. These systemic factors include the use of zero tolerance policies, exclusionary disciplinary practices, and the presence of school resource officers. The proposed study aims to assess the impact of factors that perpetuate the school-to-prison pipeline that are non-systemic in nature. For the purposes of this study, the non-systemic contributors to the school-to-prison pipeline to be assessed are parental socialization, child self-control, learned noncompliance, child resilience, child problem behaviors, and child deviance. Scales for each non-systemic contributor were created and complied into a survey instrument. The study utilized an exploratory, quantitative methodology and non-experimental research using a survey approach in a cross-sectional design to assess the perceptions of non-systemic contributors of the school-to-prison pipeline among mental health professionals who service youth at risk for justice system involvement. A sample of 71 mental health professionals participated in the study. Results indicated that resilience predicted behavior problems in schools above and beyond any other non-systemic contributor. This finding produced wide-ranging implications for the manner in which children are socialized at home and disciplined at school.