Previous studies by Thomson (1996) and Crookes (2002) in land rental markets of rural KwaZulu-Natal were based on the premise that rental markets brought about efficiency and equity gains. Indeed these gains were proven by econometric analyses in both studies. Poor households that lacked the labour, time and other resources to farm land prior to the introduction of the rental market, tended to leave their arable land idle. In participating in rental transactions, land transferred from these poor households to households with the resources and the willingness to farm; and rental income was earned by the poor households. The current 2003/4 survey sought to evaluate the gains in two new areas, Mhlungwini in the Estcourt District and Duduza in the Bergville District, not covered in previous studies. Institutional interventions, related to the land rental market, in Mhlungwini and Duduza, had started in 2000 and 1993 respectively. Equity and efficiency gains were again proven as Lyne (2004) reports. While Chapter 2 provides an in-depth review of literature related to the theory of economic institutions, Chapter 3 applies this knowledge to Thomson's (1996) pilot project on institutional reform. This project, in terms of its action research that bore the ex ante transaction costs of willing participants, set in motion a process of institutional change leading to the development of the land rental market. The introduction of a formal contract, approved by the tribal authorities, served to give credence to rental transactions. In addition, institutional changes were made to reduce the likelihood of crop damage by stray cattle on arable land, in order to encourage willingness of households to lease in land. Recommendations were made by Thomson (1996) to further increase the exclusivity of arable land property rights. Options were evaluated by the author for institutional reform of communal grazing resources. This is to prevent degradation of grazing land caused by overstocking. Recommendations were made to promote sustainable use of the land. Chapter 4, apart from briefly analyzing the current survey results, provides two comparative studies of institutional reform, the first related to Australian water resources and the second related to land registration experiences in Africa. The last section of the Chapter evaluates a proposal for introduction of formal financial services to rural farmers. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

Thesis (MScEng)-- Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Food security is a national priority, according to Section 27 of the South African Constitution. It states: “Every citizen has the right to have access to sufficient food and water, and that the state must by legislation and other measures, within its available resources, avail to progressive realisation of the right to sufficient food.” Nevertheless, while food security is clearly a government priority and regardless of the country being considered as self-sufficient in respect of food production, food insecurity remains a dire South African challenge. This study presents the improvement of smallholder pig farmers to a commercial standard with funding from the government as a potential means to address poverty and food insecurity in South Africa. Commercial standard pig farms as opposed to smallholder pig farms provide increased employment, food production, biosecurity and food safety. This investigative study evaluates the economic feasibility of a smallholder commercial pig farm in the Mamre area. The Empolweni community’s pig farmers serve as the case study and as an example of a typical smallholder pig farming community. Their current operations are studied, the requirements for a conversion to a commercial standard are assessed and the profitability and sustainability of the proposed commercial model is judged. The study’s findings indicate that specific scenarios (high production performance, large pig farm unit sizes, pork price increases or feed costs reductions) a commercial smallholder pig farm can achieve economic feasibility. However, trends indicate that there is low likelihood of the required conditions to achieve economic feasibility will be able to occur. The thesis judges only the potential economic feasibility of the case study, as opposed to the economic feasibility of commercial smallholder pig farmers on a national or regional level. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Voedsel sekuriteit is ‘n nasionale prioriteit en vorm deel van die Artikel 27 Grondwetlike regte in Suid-Afrika. Die Grondwet stel dat elke landsburger die reg op toegang tot voldoende voedsel en water het en dat die staat deur middel van wetgewing en ander maatreëls, binne sy beskikbare middele, progressiewe verwesenliking van die reg op voldoende voedsel moet laat geskied. Nietemin, alhoewel voedsel sekuriteit ongetwyfeld ‘n prioriteit van die regering is en ten spyte daarvan dat Suid-Afrika as selfonderhoudend ten opsigte van voedselproduksie gesien word, heers onvoldoende voedsel sekuriteit steeds. Hierdie studie stel die volgende moontlike oplossing voor: Suid-Afrikaanse kleinskaalse varkboere moet hul bedrywighede opgradeer na 'n kommersiële standaard. Verskeie redes kan gegee word waarom hierdie oplossing 'n gangbare opsie bied om armoede en voedselsekuriteit in Suid-Afrika teë te werk. Kommersiële varkboere, in teenstelling met kleinskaalse varkboere, bied verhoogde vlakke van voedselproduksie, werkskepping, biosekuriteit en veiliger voedingsbronne. Hierdie studie poog om die ekonomiese gangbaarheid van ‘n kleinskaalse kommersiële varkplaas in die Mamre omgewing te bepaal. Die Empolweni gemeenskap se varkboere dien as 'n gevallestudie van ‘n tipiese kleinskaalse varkboerdery gemeenskap. Hul huidige bedrywighede is ondersoek, die benodighede vir ‘n opgradering is bepaal en die winsgewendheid en volhoubaarheid van die kommersiële model is beoordeel. Bevindings toon dat vir spesifieke gevalle (hoë produksievlakke, groot varkplaaseenhede, varkprys verhogings en voerkoste verlagings) ‘n kommersiële kleinskaalse varkplaas ekonomiese gangbaarheid kan behaal. Alhoewel, tendense toon dat daar ‘n lae waarskynlikheid is dat die nodige kondisie om ekonomiese gangbaarheid te behaal sal kan plaasvind. Die tesis oorweeg slegs die ekonomiese gangbaarheid van die gevallestudie. Die ekonomiese gangbaarheid van kleinskaalse varkboere op ‘n nasionale of streeksvlak word dus nie ingesluit nie.

The study focuses on investigating the impact of crop production to sustainable livelihood strategies among rural women. The main objective of the study are as follows: to investigate the extent to which Silwindlala crop production cooperative has improved the lives of Jerseyville rural women, to investigate the new skills that Jerseyville rural women have obtained from Silwindlala crop production cooperative, to explore on challenges that would contribute to failure of crop production cooperative and to come up with the recommendations that would contribute to policy formulation and skills on management of crop production cooperative of rural women. The study employed qualitative method for data collection and analysis. The main findings of this study were that, the impact of crop production on sustainable livelihood is still seasonal, during harvesting period. Data showed low educational status and lack of business management skills among rural women, however, technical skills and collective interest contributed to the success of the cooperative

This study assesses the challenges confronted by rural women participating in small-scale commercial farming in Tweespruit, a rural town of the Free State Province. A qualitative, descriptive and explorative study was used for the study, and data was collected using focus group discussions during August 2015. The study found that rural women farmers are extremely challenged, as they are inadequately equipped as farmers, and they do not receive adequate aid from government or other entities, to enable them to turn their form of farming from subsistence farming to a more beneficial, commercialized form of farming. As a result, the study made the following recommendations. Firstly, the government should intensify programmes and strategies aimed at assisting rural women involved in farming activities. Secondly, it should also assist these farmers with training, especially in modern farming technologies, so as to grow their business into a commercialized form of farming. Finally, it was recommended that government facilitates these farmers to obtain funding from foreign donors to further grow their business.

The goal of this study was to determine the nature and factors influencing smallholder farmers in their adoption decision-making regarding the use of soil conservation practices introduced by extension practitioners in South Africa, using the case of farming at Qamata Irrigation Scheme, Eastern Cape. Using a central argument (thesis statement), the study argued that an adequate understanding and definition of smallholder farmers’ adoption decision-making process is very crucial to solving the problem of soil erosion/ degradation problem amongst smallholder farmers. Adopting the case study research design, information from 70 crop farmers (in a farmer focus group interviews) form the basis of the study. Basic models of analysis were the multiple, probit and logit, as well as the binary logistic regression analyses. According to the empirical results, perception was found very relevant in adoption decision-making, interacting positively and significantly with eight of the seventeen adoption variables chosen for the study. The indication therefore is that age (p<0.050), education (p<0.0030), and marriage (p<0.036), have more potentials to improve farmers’ perception. Similarly, higher farmer incomes (from crops [p<0.017], off-farm [p<0.038] and overall [p<0.011] income) also have a likelihood to improve farmers’ perception regarding soil conservation, for improved adoption. Further indication is that farmers who are aware (p<0.015) of the soil practices introduced by extension are also those who participate in their use (p<0.041). Employing the binary logistic, probit and logit regression models, results suggest that the nature of adoption decision-making processes of smallholder farmers is complex (not straight), being influenced by multiple factors. While age (p<0.099), gender (p<0.031), total income (p<0.081) impacted positively significant on smallholder farmers’ adoption decision-making, marital status (p<0.025), sources of land (p<0.063), length of continuously farming on same piece of land (p<0.013), and level of crop production (p<0.002) impacted negatively. The indication therefore was that older farmers preferred their own practices to the recommended practices by extension, which is in line with literature. Also as expected, more females preferred their own practices to extension recommended, while more males preferred the recommended practices. Similarly, marriage, land ownership, farming continuously on a spot for a long period, as well as increase in the level of crop production, all had a propensity to influence farmers toward the adoption of extension recommended practices as against farmers’ practices. Further results indicate, that farmers’ education (p<0.032), household size (p<0.37), and income (off-farm [p<0.036] and total [p<0.004]), measures used to measure farmers’ livelihood standards in the study, were positively significant in association with adoption. The indication was that, adoption decision-making is potentially capable of improving education level of farmers; increase the size of household, thus providing easy family labour; and as well improve level of income for the farmer. Based on the foregoing, the suggestion therefore is that any technology intervention programme that will succeed must begin with a clear understanding and analysis of farmers’ adoption process. This is better achieved when the adoption process is seen as a four-stage process, where the farmer first forms a view about the innovation (perception stage), and then decides whether or not to use it (adoption stage), as well as how much of the innovation to adopt (level of adoption stage), and finally how much is this innovation going to affect my livelihood (impact of adoption stage). Also, due to the particular relevance of perception in the adoption decision-making process, technology disseminators (extension), researchers and policy makers alike must never conclude on the rejection of any technology, not until factors determining perception of individuals have been well studied. The notion here is that, even at the confirmation stage of the adoption process of an individual adopter, when a rejection is confirmed, for an example, analysing factors of the adopter’s perception at play at the particular time of the innovation in question, could go a long way to redirecting the course of the adoption process of the said individual.

Irrigation farming is one of the most important rural development investments that can have both direct and indirect impacts on poverty and food security. The irregular and unreliable rainfall in the Eastern Cape Province has caused the smallholder farmers to deepen the irrigation farming systems as a strategy to cope with food shortage, income and poverty. South Africa has invested substantially in smallholder irrigation to benefit smallholder farmers in the less developed areas. Although the investment on small scale irrigation was to improve the welfare of the people, the performance and welfare impact of smallholder irrigation schemes has been poor and fall far short of the expectations of many stakeholders. The broad objective of the study was to examine the contribution of smallholder irrigation scheme on rural livelihoods of smallholder farmers at the project area. The null hypothesis was that smallholder irrigation schemes have no impact on farmer’s livelihoods. The alternative hypothesis for this study was that Melani irrigation scheme is contributing in improving rural livelihoods of smallholder farmers in the area. Cross study research design was used in the methodology. The purposive sampling was applied in order to choose a sample of 107 respondents that were interviewed using questionnaires, including both irrigating and non-irrigating farmers. A multiple linear regression analysis was used to find out whether the performance of the two groups of farmers is different and to what extent. To determine the specific role of irrigation an Independent T-Test was ran. Out of the selected sample 68 percent of households were farmers, 7.5 percent informal employed and 27 percent unemployed. It was found that the majority of participants were males and were uneducated. They depended on social grants for a living. The findings from the study showed that 84 percent of the respondents agreed that there is no market available in the village and farmers had limited access to credits. The crop income was the most contributing factor to household income. The results showed that whether the farmer is a non-irrigator or an irrigator the performance is not significant. Irrigation scheme improvement attained by smallholder farmers need to be maintained.

This study assesses agricultural planning and production perspective on smallholder farms of Boschplaats 91 JR using an integration of a geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS). The main objective was to evaluate the use of agro-ecological zoning (AEZ) in planning and its role in promoting sustainable agricultural production on a smallholder farm. This was achieved through processing, analysis and interpretation of satellite images together with in situ spatial data for land suitability evaluation. SPOT-5 images, which were acquired from 2006 through to 2011 were used to detect change that took place in the study area. Agro-ecological parameters such as soil, climate and terrain are limiting factors that would have a negative impact on agricultural production. Soil degradation is also a major problem to food security in Thaba Ya Batho smallholder farms and presents environmental constraints to agricultural expansion. Suitable land that could increase food production was identified and mapped. This contributes to delineation of the suitability of the land and demarcating areas of high agricultural potential. The results show that a GIS and RS make it possible to plan and monitor the use of the environment on Thaba Ya Batho smallholdings. The analysis of climate, soil and terrain has shown that more than 80% of the study area is suitable for both irrigated and dryland production. A number of key constraints faced by smallholder farmers are presented. Lack of experience and poor agricultural planning were found to be among limiting factors to production. Despite the scale at which agro-ecological zones are generated, they still play significant role in planning of agricultural production / Department of Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

This study aimed to evaluate commercial biofertiliser quality and awareness amongst smallholder farmers in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Sixty-seven smallholder farmers were interviewed in Gauteng Province by using a survey method, while the physicochemical and microbiological properties of 13 biofertilisers were evaluated using laboratory experiments. The results showed that awareness and use of biofertiliser are very poor, with 96% of the smallholder farmers surveyed not having biofertiliser knowledge. Furthermore, the products lack basic quality parameters: 54% contained no biofertiliser strain while all the products contained microbial contaminants. The pH, moisture content and viable microbial densities were below the acceptable standards for some of the products. Two fungal and 58 bacterial operational taxonomic units were obtained from the 16S rRNA Sanger sequences while 5 791 OTUs were obtained from the Illumina Miseq system. Approximately 40%, 41% and 59% of the isolates were positive for nitrogen-fixation, siderophore production and phosphorous solubilisation. Overall, there is a need to improve awareness amongst farmers and promote good-quality biofertiliser products for increased crop productivity. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

The study was conducted in Zanyokwe and Shiloh smallholder irrigation schemes located in Eastern Cape Province at Amathole and Chris Hani districts respectively. The choice of Zanyokwe and Shiloh smallholder irrigation scheme for this study is mainly supported by the fact that it had a substantial level of crop farming activity taking place especially at Zanyokwe while the Shiloh smallholder irrigation specialises dairy farming. The study examined decision making in smallholder irrigation practice with particular reference to Shiloh and Zanyokwe irrigation schemes. The general objective of the thesis was to analyse and model the determinants of SIS farmer‟s decision making. The specific objectives of the study are as follows: to investigate the determinants of decision making among smallholder irrigation farmers; to examine the relationship between household and farm characteristics and institutional factors that explain decision making in smallholder irrigation scheme; assess the contribution of smallholder irrigation farming to household food security; and determine the production and marketing constraints of smallholder farmers‟ in both schemes. The theoretical and conceptual framework of the study gave a detailed discussion on the determinants of decision making of households. The theories used to understand household behaviour under different assumptions were variously discussed. Comprehensive illustrations of analytical framework of the study were also conceptualised. This study used a survey design, quantitative and qualitative research methodologies involving the use of questionnaires and focus group discussions. The data was coded and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). However, frequencies, percentages, bar and pie chart was also computed to describe the data. In consideration of the conceptual framework of the study, the agricultural household model was adopted to analyse smallholder farmer‟s household decision making. Twenty one explanatory variables identified in the conceptual framework of the study were discussed and some of these identified variables were incorporated into the model. The logistic regression model was used as a method of analysis because it can estimate the probability of a certain event occurring and it accommodates a lot of variables which can be ranked in order to illustrate which variables are significant. In the binary logistic model used, seven variables (farm experience, size of farmland, land rights/PTO, water sufficiency, farm asset, market information and production variation) out of the twelve predictor variables were found to have significant effect on influencing household decision making in Shiloh smallholder irrigation scheme, while five variables (gender, age, education, road distance and extension access) were not significant. Of the seven significant variables, four had positive signs (land rights/PTO, water sufficiency and market information); which means that an increase in either of these variables may be associated with an increase in household decision making in Shiloh. The other three predictor variables (farm experience, farm asset and product variation) had negative signs; this means an increase in either of these variables may be associated with a decrease in decision making. In Zanyokwe, six variables (farm experience, land rights/PTO, water sufficiency, farm asset, market information and production variation) out of the twelve predictor variables were found to have significant impact on influencing household decision making, while six variables (gender, age, education, size of farm land, road distance and extension access) were not significant. Of the six significant variables, two had positive signs (water sufficiency and farm asset); which means that an increase in either of these variables may be associated with an increase in household decision making in Zanyokwe. The other four predictor variables (farm experience, land rights/PTO, market information and product variation) had negative signs; this means an increase in either of these variables may be associated with a decrease in decision making. The study concludes that smallholder agriculture is essential for employment generation and food security of households. It is apparent that household food security will not be achieved without giving attention to the role played by smallholders‟ farmers in South Africa. It is pertinent to promulgate an efficient policy programme to address the diversity of smallholders‟ situations and identify the main constraints on investment. Therefore, all spheres of government, the private sector and NGOs should consider investment in smallholder agriculture through coordinated strategies and political support. This study also recommends that government should develop a strategic Smallholder Investment Plan which would improve investments in smallholder agriculture.

black owners by white colonialists. Even though whites made up less than 20% of the nation‟s population, they took more than 80% of the agriculturally productive land and drove the original owners to the unproductive reserves where they were cramped and could not practice agriculture at all. Various acts such as the Black Land Act of 1913, Development Trust Act of 1936 and the Native Laws Amendment Act of 1937 were introduced which further frustrated the displaced black population thereby plunging it deeper and deeper into poverty. The main objective behind the introduction of these acts was to restrain the black population from earning livelihoods through agriculture thus forcing them to offer their labour to white farmers for low wages just to earn some form of livelihood. Such unfair practices and distribution of land prompted the first democratically elected government of South Africa to embark on a drive to redistribute the nation‟s land equitably amongst its citizens to foster national reconciliation, stimulate economic growth and compensate those that were forced out or lost their land during the apartheid era. This initiative was called the Land Reform Programme (LRP) and was implemented with three prongs namely (i) land redistribution; (ii) restitution; and (iii) land tenure. Among the beneficiaries of the LRP were farmers from a community called Marselle in Kenton-on-sea. In addition to getting land for farming purposes, the Marselle farmers also obtained financial support from the government‟s Land Bank to help them kick-start their farming activities. However, in spite of such interventions, they have struggled to turn their activities into sustainable livelihood sources. One most likely cause for this is the lack of farming knowledge and skills needed to make them more efficient and productive. This study was thus geared towards evaluating the knowledge and skills gap in Marselle which, when addressed, could make the Marselle farmers more productive. Its focus was limited to the 32 livestock and 8 chicory farmers that are recognized members of their respective projects. Focus was limited only to these farmers since the next phase of this study will involve building their capacity based on the skills gaps identified through this study. The findings showed that the two projects benefited at least 130 individuals belonging to the farming households, with 67.5% of these households headed by males. The age of these farmers was equally shared at 40% each between those above 65 years and those that only went as far as fourth grade. No one went to tertiary at all. At least 75% of the investigated farmers were unemployed and 42% of this population was pensioners. In terms of income though, 64.98% of it was from external sources. The Masakhane Silime (Chicory) project was implemented to generate income and provide job opportunities for the locals but neither of these objectives had been met at the time the data for this study was collected due to various challenges like lack of funds and infrastructure to enhance productivity. Just like the chicory project, the livestock project had its own objectives, namely; to remove animals from the residential areas, provide the animals with a safe place, reduce road accidents and also to provide a livelihood source for local farmers. Due to overgrazing the pastures, lack of proper camps and other challenges, some effort still needs to be put to achieve these objectives. Even though the livestock project was formed with these objectives in mind, the farmers themselves reared livestock either for personal consumption, selling, ritual purposes, store of wealth or all these combined. Regarding technical skills, livestock farmers were found to rely mostly on indigenous knowledge sources to attain farming knowledge. Only animal healthcare knowledge was popular to more than half the respondents. This was said to be due to the focus group meetings held on the farm every other Wednesday to share information with local extension officers. In spite of these information sharing events, livestock farmers identified training on how to feed; market; handle; and treat their livestock as key intervention knowledge areas. Attendance to these focus group meetings was limited to livestock farmers only. Various socio-economic factors were also found to have some form of influence on the acquisition of livestock knowledge. Education was the most dominant factor, with a significant association with the farmers‟ feeding (p=0.033); animal healthcare (P=0.038); marketing (p=0.009); veld management (p=0.036); and cattle slaughtering (p=0.027) knowledge. Other variables most influential include the gender and age of the household head. The former was significant at 95% confidence level for farmers‟ feeding knowledge (p=0.021); animal healthcare (p=0.039); marketing (p=0.043); livestock housing and handling (p=0.023); veld management (p=0.018); and cattle slaughtering (p=0.043). The dominance of males in acquiring these skills could be explained by the fact that the majority of the livestock project members were males. The majority of the few female members became members by default after the passing on of their husbands but their participation in the project was done through other project members who looked after their animals on their behalf. The number of farming years also had some positive and significant influence on other knowledge areas such as feeding (p=0.021) and livestock housing and handling (p=0.013). The logic supporting this association is that farmers tend to accumulate new and more skills the longer they stay in the same enterprise. In addition, most of the interviewed farmers were farm labourers prior to relocating to Marselle hence they acquired the necessary knowledge long before the project started. Concerning the chicory project, its members also relied heavily on indigenous knowledge sources for farming knowledge. Soil preparation (24.1%); planting (20.7%); land care (24.1%); and mechanical weed control (48.3%) were the knowledge areas lacked by more than half the respondents. The farmers identified land preparation (75%); communication skills (25%); marketing (100%); financial management (62%); and harvesting (88%) as the key crucial intervention areas they needed prioritized. As a study meant to inform the capacity building phase of the Land Bank project, this study identified the existing skills gaps in the two projects implemented in Forest Hill. When implementing the Capacity Building (CB) phase, various socio-economic factors will have to be considered. For example, the proposed intervention should not discriminate against anyone on the grounds of gender or physical abilities. The skills introduced should also be simple enough to be accepted and acquired even by the illiterate, especially when one considers the high illiteracy levels amongst the respondents. Efforts should also be made to create partnerships with the right organizations or groups of people so that they provide the required expertise and resources for the benefit of the farmers as and when required.