Agriculture is a potentially important activity to address poverty, hunger and unemployment in rural communal areas. To cater for the needs of the many small-scale farmers in KwaZuluNatal, the Farming Systems Research Section (FSRS) was mandated in the mid-1990s to conduct on-farm, client-orientated research in rural communal areas. The identification of the Obonjaneni community as target area by the Extension staff was based on the fact that agriculture was in a poor state and that very few agricultural activities were taking place in Obonjaneni. Members of the community endorsed this by describing agriculture as "dead and not sick" when the FSRS arrived in the community during late 1997. Secondary information gleaned from the Bioresource Programme indicated that there was considerable potential for improved crop and vegetable production in Obonjaneni. Livestock in the community was destructive and prevented crop production activities in the communal cropping fields. A diagnostic study took place during March 1998, when 17 people engaged in agriculture were individually interviewed at their homesteads. Of the 17 respondents interviewed, 10 (59%) were involved with both crops and livestock, six (35%) planted crops only and one (6%) had only livestock. Most of the agricultural products were retained to satisfy household food requirements, with a very small proportion of products (29% of respondents indicated a once-off income through selling of potatoes, maize or livestock) being marketed in the community. The diagnostic survey, and further discussions with members of the community, revealed that agriculture was in a poor state, in terms, for example, of productivity, community interest in agriculture and livestock control. The two main issues which had a negative impact on the agricultural activities in Obonjaneni were identified as stray animals and a lack of agricultural expertise. Indications were that no-one in the community was permanently involved in agriculture and no-one seemed to rely on agriculture as a source of income. Obonjaneni is, however, an area with high agricultural potential and reports were that, in the past, the community was actively involved in agriculture. At the time of the interviews, no activity was taking place in the 40 ha of communal cropping fields, which had been unplanted for five to seven years at the time of the interviews, due largely to the major problem of stray animals. Maize was the main crop produced in Obonjaneni in areas around the homesteads, with 16 (94%) of the respondents interviewed planting it. People interviewed harvested between 100 kg and 1000 kg of shelled maize, while the yield averaged VI approximately 300 kg per household. The maize yields obtained from the small areas at the homesteads in general did not meet the requirements of households. People in the community did not use lime when growing crops and vegetables. Soil analyses indicated that soil fertility, and particularly the high soil acidity levels, were negatively affecting the production of crops and vegetables. Another important finding was that all the people interviewed spent money on some fertilizer, but 94% of the farmers interviewed had never had their soils tested. The community garden was in a poor state, with low vegetable yields and despondent garden members. Poverty, the agricultural constraints identified and the low agricultural production justified the focus of an on-farm research and technology dissemination programme. The objective of the intervention was to revive agriculture in Obonjaneni. The constraints were used as the basis for planning the research programme. The on-farm trials confirmed that the Obonjaneni area has considerable agricultural potential. It was found to be extremely difficult to initiate a livestock programme to address the constraints. The main reason for this was the absence of an organised community livestock association in Obonjaneni to provide support and to guide a research programme. The main technology dissemination events were (i) activities such as planting, management (e.g. weeding and pest and disease control) and harvesting of trials (ii) farmers' field days and (iii) feedback meetings on trial results. The farmers ' field days drew participation from across all sectors of the community, including community leaders, participating and nonparticipating farmers (including some farmers from neighbouring communities) and pupils, who had agriculture as a subject, from the local secondary school. An important input was obtained from members of the community's Amazizi Maize Association, who shared their knowledge and experiences at the farmers ' field days and at meetings. Feedback from farmers and the questions asked by them were encouraging and showed that some farmers were benefiting from the on-farm trials. A very strong indicator of the growing interest in agriculture between 1997 and 2002, when a comprehensive impact evaluation study was conducted as part of the study, was the increase in the number of fields being cultivated and planted in the communal cropping area. In 1997 not one field was planted; during the cropping season of 1998/1999 eight fields were planted with maize, 16 fields during 200112002 and 44 fields in January 2003 (41 fields with maize vu and 3 with potatoes). Records kept by two farmers showed net profits during the 200112002 season ofR3 572 and R2 443 from the maize they produced. During the impact evaluation study conducted in September and October 2002, individual interviews were held and 113 questionnaires were completed from a selected sample of 223 out of a possible 937 homesteads in Obonjaneni. Women in 68% of these households were found to be responsible for agricultural activities. The feedback from 65% of the respondents was that the state of agriculture in Obonjaneni has improved at the time of the interviews, compared to the situation prior to the on-farm research and technology dissemination programme, when the people had described agriculture as "dead and not sick". The improved production of crops contributed largely to the view that agriculture in Obonjaneni had improved. Bearing in mind the poor state of agriculture, and the total absence of any cropping activity in the communal fields when the FSRS arrived in Obonjaneni. Five years later approximately 90% of the respondents in October 2002 were of the view that agriculture had a good and bright future for agriculture in the community. An important aspect was that approximately 23% of the respondents had the vision of being upgraded from "a small- to a large-scale farmer" category. The on-farm research and technology dissemination programme conducted in Obonjaneni between 1998 and 2002 contributed to the revival of agriculture and benefited people in terms of improved crops and vegetable production, especially in the communal cropping fields and community garden. It was responsible for some employment opportunities (e.g. weeding and harvesting of maize) and for the production of produce to sell and buy in their own community. The intervention of the FSRS engendered new enthusiasm for agricultural production in the Obonjaneni community and contributed to the appreciation by farmers of the enormous potential that agriculture holds for food security and the upliftment of people living in the community. This thesis includes chapters dealing with target area selection, secondary information, diagnostic studies, on-farm research and technology dissemination, the selection of a sample and the results of an impact evaluation study. The many lessons learned during this intervention are translated into recommendations for use in future initiatives of a similar kind. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

Summary: Swaziland has long had a disparity between the supply and demand of milk. Even at present milk production continues to be less than the market demand. The quantitative contribution of smallholder dairy farmers to local milk production remains unknown because of poor record keeping. This study was aimed at attaining a clear understanding of the dynamics of smallholder dairying in Swaziland, including the identification and understanding of the constraints faced by farmers in dairying, with the hope of devising workable solutions to them. A sample of 118 smallholder dairy farms were covered in this study, with a total herd of 306 lactating cows, comprising mainly of Jerseys and Holstein Friesians, with some cross breeds. There were no significant differences in mean milk yield/cow with respect to farmer gender (P > 0.05) and Agro-ecological zone location (P > 0.05) of the farms. Milking frequency had a significant effect on milk yield, since cattle milked once a day had lower (P < 0.05) milk yields than those milked twice a day. The cattle had extensively long calving intervals i.e. 448 ± 166 days, ranging from 292 to 1082 days. Low milk yield and poor reproductive performance of cattle were found to be mainly due to poor nutrition, breeding practices and stock quality. These are primarily a result of insufficient farmer training and inadequate technical assistance, scarce availability of quality stock, lack of investment resources and market support that includes favourable milk prices for farmers to make money. This performance of the Swazi smallholder dairy herd was then evaluated by comparing it to the performance of a larger, well-managed herd of known pedigree. Lactation records from 252 Jersey cows and 108 Holstein Friesian cows were obtained from Cedara Agricultural Research Institute, covering the periods; July, 2002 to July, 2004 and November, 2002 to April, 2004, respectively. Cows were grouped by parity and calving season and the gamma function proposed by Wood (Y = An(b) e(-cn)) was used to fit standard lactation curves on group data. The curve parameters A and b increased with parity, while that of c and s (persistency of lactation at peak) decreased, producing standard lactation curves save for the Holstein Friesian summer calvers, which produced atypical curves. The R(2) values (goodness of fit) increased with parity. Animal parity and calving season were found to influence the peak and shape of the lactation curves and their parameter estimates. The performance of the Swazi smallholder herd showed a mean deviation of the observed daily milk yield of the Holstein Friesian breed from the expected yield to be - 3.47 (SD 6.052) kg and that of the Jersey breed was - 16.92 (SD 5.473) kg. The mean proportional deviation of observed milk yield from the expected yield for the Holstein Friesian breed was - 0.3 (SD 0.37) and that of the Jersey breed to be - 0.6 (SD 0.19). The proportional milk yield deviation of the Holstein Friesian breed can be explained using the equation Y = O.1322(SE = 0.1293) x - 2.3581 (SE = 0.20639), where x = expected milk yield and Y is the proportional deviation of the observed milk yield deviation from the expected milk yield. With respect to the smallholder Jersey breed, no relationship was found that could explain the proportional milk yield deviation. The smallholder herd was shown to be underperforming, considering the potential for higher milk yields of the two breeds. In the quest to gain a greater understanding of the dynamics of smallholder dairying, the sample of 118 farmers was further analysed using multivariate statistics to categorise them based on their herd sizes, herd structures, management and success perceptions in dairying. The analysis produced three clusters (categories): cluster 1 had the largest herd sizes and poor milk production efficiency; cluster 2 had intermediate herd sizes, the highest number of farmers and more efficient milk production per cow. This cluster, however, had the highest proportion of calf mortalities. Cluster 3 had the smallest herd size, the lowest calf to cow ratio and the second highest calf mortality. Record keeping across all clusters was very poor and the average milk yield per cow was generally low. Most of the farmers do not appreciate the importance of annual calving of their cows as an integral part of the success of their dairy projects and winter feed supplementation is very poor across all the clusters. There remains a great need for the enlightenment of the farmers on the importance of good nutrition, breeding, calf rearing and record keeping in successful dairying. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

This study investigates the characteristics of technology adoption by small-scale farmers, notably the factors influencing the adoption of hybrid maize seed, inorganic fertilizer and machinery technologies. The study also on the basis of socio-economic and institutional factors, identifies the dimensions of small-scale farmers. Data for the study were obtained from a sample survey of 160 households in the Amangwane and Amazizi wards, located in the Okhahlamba magisterial district of KwaZulu-Natal during August 2000. The chief aim of this study is to generate empirical information that can be used to devise programs to encourage small-scale farmers to adopt agricultural technologies. The motivation of the research emanates from the fact that there is limited empirical information as to the actual adoption patterns of agricultural technologies by small-scale farmers. The nature and relative importance of factors associated with technology adoption is time and location specific. The study by using more recent and broader information builds on previous studies in order to complement technology adoption research on small-scale farmers. Understanding what factors influence the adoption of farm technologies and categories or dimensions of small-scale agriculture should provide information on policy options to stimulate technology adoption and improve growth in agricultural productivity. A categorical dependent variable was specified to identify farmers' adoption pattern of hybrid maize seed and fertilizer. Seventy-two farmers were adopters of both hybrid seed and fertilizer, 56 were adopters of either hybrid seed or fertilizer while 32 farmers were non-adopters. The results of binary logistic regression analysis indicate the adoption of hybrid maize seed and fertilizer is positively associated with, in order of importance, larger farms, older household heads, more value of livestock and better access to information sources. An index that indicates farmers' status of adoption of machinery technologies was constructed using a principal component analysis technique. The analysis showed that the adoption of machinery technologies can be represented by the single index which could be used as a dependent variable. A principal component regression analysis was subsequently used to determine factors contributing to the adoption of the machinery technology index. The results indicate that adoption was higher for (1) older and male headed households in general and residents of the Amangwane ward in particular; (2) operators of more arable land, owners of more livestock and earners of more non-farm income; and (3) households with large family labour, and households that made use of extension services and information sources. These results are consistent with hypothesised relationship between technology adoption and the predictors and are supported by previous empirical findings. Priority should be given to policies that alleviate the tenure insecurity problem on arable land and this in turn promotes a land rental market. This would involve an institutional change and legal infrastructural support services. Arable land holding is highly skewed within the communal setting and the state needs to address this equity issue on arable land through redistribution or reform policies. The state needs also to invest in public goods that alleviate the problems of private investors for example by encouraging credit providers or promoting rural financial markets to alleviate liquidity constraints and enhance adoption. Investment in farmer training and education should therefore, be seen as priority if higher adoption rates and an improvement in income are to be achieved. Inadequate and poor extension and information services imply an urgent need for the formation of community and farming associations and for the provision of extension services to groups of farmers. Investment in these areas may reduce the cost of technology transfer programmes. The results of a principal component analysis to identify the dimensions of small-scale farmers in communal areas of KwaZulu indicate that farmers fall into distinct categories. Component 1 is an emerging commercial and a more mechanised household while component 2 is a land-less farm household that is more educated and earns more non-farm income largely from contractor services. Component 3 is a non-farm female headed household that depends on income from land renting and non-farm jobs. Component 4 is a small intensive garden farmer, headed by a relatively educated female who has access to institutional services. Component 5 is relatively less educated, a female-headed and land-poor household that rents land and produces intensively. It is concluded that a single policy measure cannot do justice to the needs of all of the farmers since it would affect different households differently. An integrated and a comprehensive programme is needed that would promote agriculture; facilitate income transfer or safety nets to alleviate poverty and the relief of short-term stress; address the problems of tenure insecurity; overcome the gender inequalities in accessing resources; and restructure institutional supports by providing rural finance, and an extension and legal infrastructure. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

South Africa lacks affordable irrigation technologies suited entirely to the needs of small-scale farmers. This is mainly due to the past emphasis on large, commercial farming technologies and the misunderstanding that emerging farmers can utilise scaled down versions of such technologies. It is now believed that increased irrigation amongst smallholders could largely assist with food security and poverty alleviation in South Africa. The object of this project was therefore to evaluate selected appropriate irrigation technologies that are currently being used in other developing countries with the intention of introducing them into South Africa. A literature review on all the irrigation technologies currently being used by small-scale farmers in South Africa was performed. The literature review provided information on the factors affecting the adoption of irrigation technologies. Selected technologies, namely, various low-cost, manual pumps and drip irrigation kits were then imported and evaluated under local conditions. The evaluation process was divided into two sections. Qualitative evaluations were carried out on farms and by farmers themselves and quantitative evaluations were carried out in laboratories and closely monitored field trials. A South African prototype pump was then designed and built following the knowledge gained from testing the imported pumps. The prototype was tested and then refined and rebuilt. The qualitative test results showed a very positive reaction from farmers towards the pumps. The drip irrigation kits were often not used as a result of a lack of understanding by the farmers. The laboratory test phase highlighted the more critical components of the pumps. A recommended introduction strategy was then developed and is presented. This evaluation process and introduction strategy could in future be used as a guideline when developing other suitable technologies for small-scale farmers.I wish to certify that the work reported in this dissertation is my own unaided work except where specific acknowledge is made. In addition I wish to declare that this dissertation has not been submitted for a degree in any other university. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2001.

More than 60% of the dairy products consumed in Swaziland are imported from South Africa. The Swaziland Dairy Board had established the dairy credit guarantee scheme with Swaziland Finance Development Cooperation to improve local dairy production and boost the livelihoods of smallholder dairy farmers. Unfortunately, the scheme was terminated without its effectiveness being evaluated. Therefore, the study set out to investigate the contribution of the dairy credit guarantee scheme to household food security. A total of 30 beneficiary households participated in the study. The data were collected through a structured questionnaire and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 18.0). The households were compared in terms of the mean number of cows, milk production and volume of sales using the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The dairy scheme was open to all qualifying smallholder dairy farmers, but most (86.7%) beneficiaries were male. The beneficiary households owned, on average, between one and eight cows between 2006 and 2009, and produced 188079 litres of milk on average per year. The highest income generated from milk sales was R74137.00 per year between 2006 and 2009. The lowest income from milk sales was R1020.00, from a household with the lowest number of dairy cows on average per year between 2006 and 2009. Beneficiaries reported that the increase in income enabled them to accumulate agricultural assets, increased food purchases and the diversification of livelihoods. Over 56.7% of the households were able to diversify their livelihoods by engaging in other income-generating projects such as poultry and pig production, horticulture, selling groceries and block (brick) making. With improved income especially milking households were able to increase food supply and this is indicated by their higher average Food Consumption Scores (75.58) than non-milking households (59.65). However, all the average Food Consumption Scores were above 42 which is a threshold level for acceptable nutrient intake, dietary diversity and this implies that the dairy production scheme led to improved dietary intake. In conclusion, the dairy credit scheme has the potential to improve local milk production and household food security. It is, therefore, recommended that the dairy scheme be revived, with better accessibility. The establishment of dairy development policy should be considered, in order to create a favourable environment for dairying and the promotion of cooperation among dairy development partners. This cooperation would help to avoid duplication of efforts among development partners and create a platform for interaction, sharing of information and exchange of ideas. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

Errata pasted on front end papers. / Bibliography: leaves 356-371. / xxii, 371 leaves : ill. (chiefly col.) ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geography, 1996?

Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008. / Full text also available online. Scroll down for electronic link.

Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008. / Full text also available online. Scroll down for electronic link.

The use of genetically modified (GM) maize technology is subject to compliance with stewardship requirements and the adoption of specific management practices that promote the long-term effectiveness and environmental sustainability of the technology. For smallholders to comply with these requirements and adopt the desired management practices to ultimately benefit from the technology, they require information that creates awareness of the value of these requirements. To determine what information farmers receive about GM maize and how this information is disseminated to farmers, face to face interviews were conducted with 81 extension personnel and 210 smallhoder GM maize farmers in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The effect of Bt maize introduction and management practices in smallholder maize agroecosystems in the Eastern Cape on Bt maize target [Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)] and non-target insect pests [Agrotis segetum (Denis & Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)] and a snail species, [Cornu aspersum (Müller) (Gastropoda: Helicidae)] was determined through laboratory, field and cage experiments. The effect of smallhoder farmers‟ GM maize cultivation practices on the profitability of GM maize technology was also determined through on-farm trials in different localities of the Eastern Cape identified as hot-spots for stem borer and weed infestation. Results of surveys indicated that extension personnel had a low level of awareness of GM maize technology stewardship requirements. GM maize technology was also largely disseminated to smallholder farmers through non-participatory approaches and print media sourced from GM seed companies. Although farmers had a high level of contact with extension services, they lacked access to information about GM maize technology. Smallholder farmers‟ level of awareness about GM maize and compliance with the requirement for the planting of non-Bt maize refuge areas adjacent to Bt maize was also very low. While Bt maize event (MON810) commonly cultivated by smallholder farmers in the Eastern Cape Province had a variable effect on A. segetum under laboratory conditions, it had no effect on the incidence of plants damaged by A. segetum and C. aspersum under field conditions. The incidence of H. armigera damage on Bt maize plants was however significantly affected by Bt maize. Populations of B. fusca collected from smallholder maize fields in the province were observed to be still highly susceptible to Bt maize. Results of on-farm evaluation of the profitability of GM maize revealed that stem borer pressure, growing conditions, input supplies and market access affect the productivity and profitability of GM maize cultivation. Challenges within the extension and advisory services of the Eastern Cape which can militate against smallholder farmers‟ ability to benefit from GM maize technology and sustain the long-term efficacy of the technology were identified during this study. Given these challenges and the fact that the cultivation of GM maize may not be profitable under typical smallholder maize cultivation conditions and management practices, dissemination approaches that provide farmers the opportunity to evaluate GM maize technology alongside alternate technologies under their conditions, may prove beneficial.

Agricultural biodiversity, commonly referred to as agrobiodiversity, is that part of biodiversity that is geared towards agriculture and food production. Agrobiodiversity is said to contribute much to food and nutrition, but there is lack of data confirming this, particularly from Eastern Africa. To assess the extent of agrobiodiversity on smallholder farms and in local markets and to connect these to food intake and perceptions of food security among smallholder farmers in Western Kenya, the thesis asks four main research questions: (i) What is the extent of food plant diversity in smallholder farms, the bio-physical and socio-economic factors influencing it and the contribution of this diversity to the household's food needs? (ii) What is the relationship between agricultural and dietary diversity? (iii) What linkages are there between agricultural and nutritional diversity? (iv) How does access to agrobiodiversity in local markets contribute to meeting household food needs and what is the extent of smallholder farmers' integration into these markets? Through a combination of focus group discussions, farm and market surveys conducted across three time points, results indicate that: (i) higher food plant species richness is found on farms managed by wealthier and older households. However, these households are not more food secure than the rest, (ii) while there is a lack of a strong relationship between agricultural and dietary diversity, dietary diversity is instead significantly influenced by socio-economic factors including a household's wealth status, ethnicity and education level, (iii) despite a diversity of locally available on-farm and market food species meeting existing macro-and micro-nutrient needs, there is a general lack of understanding of this diversity as food shortage months coincide with a lack of maize despite high availability of a diversity of other foods not only to replace the maize but also to contribute to a diverse diet, (iv) smallholder farmers rely on multiple food sources, with markets mainly for sourcing cereals, fruits and animal source foods. There is also low integration of smallholder farmers as sellers in local markets. Together, the four case studies show interlinkages across food availability, accessibility and utilisation, which when addressed with equal weight, could unlock local agrobiodiversity's potential as a path to food and nutrition security of smallholder farming households.