85% des patients atteints de cancer du pancréas présentent au diagnostic des formes avancées de la maladie qui empêchent leur prise en charge thérapeutique efficace. Il est donc urgent de mettre en évidence des marqueurs diagnostics permettant de détecter plus tôt ces cancers, mais également leur rechute, afin d'améliorer leur prise en charge. Les miARNs (micro acides ribonucléiques) sont des biomarqueurs du cancer du pancréas, présentant une valeur clinique démontrée pour la détection précoce des tumeurs et le suivi de la réponse au traitement. Cependant, les méthodes actuelles d'extraction et de détection de ces molécules ne sont pas adaptées à une utilisation clinique. Les nouvelles technologies issues des méthodes de micro et nanofabrication ont le potentiel de permettre la mise en place de tests diagnostiques, offrant un haut degré de portabilité et de robustesse, une lecture en temps réel, et à bas coût. Nous proposons ici une plateforme nanofluidique couplée à une détection en fluorescence permettant la mesure en temps réel d'interactions moléculaires en milieu hyper-confiné. Nous décrivons dans un premier temps la plateforme de détection via un modèle théorique à une dimension basé sur la dynamique moléculaire permettant de prédire la capture spécifique des miARNs dans un nanocanal fonctionnalisé. L'originalité du système réside dans une accroche non homogène des miARNs sur la surface du capteur. Ainsi, nous démontrons que l'étude du profil spatial d'hybridation engendré permet de déterminer l'affinité du miARN capturé avec la séquence sonde en une seule étape, sans lavage. Nous démontrons également l'excellente spécificité du biocapteur qui permet la discrimination rapide (moins de 10 minutes) de SND (single nucleotide difference). Les performances du dispositif pour des applications au plus près des problématiques biologiques dans le cadre de la détection du cancer du pancréas sont enfin discutées : les effets de la préparation d'échantillon types biofluides complexes sur l'extraction de miARNs sont étudiés, puis deux approches permettant la détection de miARNs endogènes sont décrites et comparées, conduisant à la détection de miARNs extraits de cultures cellulaires modèles du cancer du pancréas. / 85% of patients affected by pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PDA) are diagnosed at an advanced stage, preventing effective care and curative treatments. Therefore, it is urgent to identify reliable biomarkers for the early detection of disease status, including relapse. MiRNAs (micro ribonucleic acids) are biomarkers of PDA, with demonstrated clinical value for early detection of tumors and monitoring of response to treatment. However, current methods of extraction and detection of miRNA are not compatible with clinical use. New technologies derived from micro and nanofabrication methods have the potential to facilitate the implementation of diagnostic tests, by offering a high degree of portability and robustness, short time to results at low cost. Here, we propose a nanofluidic platform coupled to fluorescence detection for the real time measurement of molecular interactions in a confined environment. We first describe the detection platform via a one-dimension theoretical model based on molecular dynamics to predict the capture of miRNAs into biofunctionalized nanochannels. The originality of the system lies in the non-homogeneous hybridization of miRNA targets onto the sensor. We demonstrate that the analysis of the spatial hybridization profile enables the determination of the affinity of the captured miRNA with the probe sequence in a wash-free single step. We then show the rapid discrimination (less than 10 minutes) of single nucleotide difference (SND) using this strategy. The performance of the device in the context of pancreatic cancer detection is discussed: the effect of sample preparation of complex biofluids is studied and two labeling approaches compatible with the detection of endogenous miRNAs are described and compared, leading to the detection of miRNAs extracted from model cell cultures of pancreatic cancer.

Analogues structuraux des porphyrines et des Salens, des ligands de type dipyrrométhène bis-phénol ont été étudiés dans notre groupe, notamment sous forme de complexes pour la catalyse d'oxydation. L'activité catalytique de ces complexes étant faible, il a été proposé de remplacer les phénols par des triazoles. L'objet de cette thèse était d'étudier et de valoriser une nouvelle famille de ligands dipyrrométhène bis-triazole.Plusieurs voies de synthèse ont d'abord été étudiées et optimisées pour accéder à ces nouveaux ligands. Nous nous sommes attachés ensuite à valoriser ces nouveaux ligands selon plusieurs axes.Un de ces ligands a été testé en reconnaissance d'anions, ainsi que les dérivés monotriazolium et bis-triazolium. Les triazoliums ont également permis l'accès à des métallocomplexes carbéniques, qui ont été étudiés.Par ailleurs, les métallocomplexes des dipyrrométhène bis-triazole ont été préparés et caractérisés, y compris par électrochimie. Des essais d'utilisation en oxydation ont été entrepris. Enfin, la synthèse de BODIPYs® liposolubles et hydrosolubles a été réalisée. Les propriétés optiques ont été mesurées puis ces dérivés fluorescents ont été testés pour le marquage fluorescent de cellules HeLa / Known as structural analogues of porphyrins and Salens, dipyrromethene bis-phenol-type ligands have been studied in our group, especially as complexes for oxidation catalysis. Due to the poor catalytic activity of these complexes, it has been proposed to replace the phenol moieties with triazoles. The purpose of this thesis was to study and develop a new family of dipyrromethene bis-triazole ligands.Several synthetic routes were first investigated and optimized to reach these new ligands. We then have endeavoured to add value to these new ligands along several lines.The ligand has been tested in anion recognition, as well as monotriazolium and bis-triazolium derivatives. The triazoliums also allowed access to carbene metallocomplexes that were studied.Furthermore, dipyrromethene bis-triazole metallocomplexes were prepared and characterized, notably by electrochemistry. Oxidation catalysis tests were undertaken.Finally, the synthesis of liposoluble and hydrosoluble BODIPYs® was performed. Their optical properties were measured and these fluorescent derivatives were tested for the fluorescent labeling of HeLa cells

This thesis explores the benefits of intensity modulation for the purpose of extending the range of applications of fluorescence spectroscopy and imaging in cellular and molecular biology and medicine. Long-lived transient states of fluorescent molecules can, because of their long lifetimes, be used to detect subtle changes in the microenvironment of the molecule. A method for determining the kinetic rates for transitions to and from such states by registration of changes in the average fluorescence intensity related to different modulation of the excitation source is introduced. It combines the detection sensitivity of fluorescence with the environmental sensitivity of the long-lived transient states and allows the use of slow detectors such as CCD cameras, making parallelization and wide-field imaging possible developments. An extension of this method, generating image contrast based on triplet state population using a standard laser scanning microscope, is also shown. A strategy to combine fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) with modulated excitation, in a way that allows extraction of correlation data for all correlation times, is presented. This enables the use of modulation to optimize measurement conditions with respect to photophysical properties of the dyes used. FCS with modulated excitation will probably prove useful in future studies involving multiple kinetic processes occurring in overlapping time ranges. One of the ideas from this project also constitutes a powerful method for generating artifact free correlation curves from data sets where sections have been removed. This is potentially very useful in biological studies where spikes in the measurements often cause problems. In the final project, cross-correlation and alternating excitation are combined in measurements on a pH-sensitive ratiometric dye to clearly distinguish the protonation–deprotonation dynamics from other processes. The presented approach makes the protonation related fluctuations manifest themselves as a very distinct anti-correlating component in the correlation curve. This enables robust data analysis using a simple model. / QC 20100805

The biological function of a protein is determined by its amino acid sequence, structure, and internal dynamics. In turn the prediction of a protein structure from its folding pathway involves the characterization of the dynamics of the polypeptide backbone. This study addresses how the internal dynamics of arborescent polypeptides are affected by increased crowding of the interior of these branched polymer molecules. Linear, comb-branched, and arborescent poly(L-glutamic acid) (PGA) samples were analyzed by 1H NMR spectroscopy to determine their chain conformation. The PGA chains of these constructs were shown to adopt α-helical and random coil conformations in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) and in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), respectively. The hydrodynamic diameter (Dh) of the arborescent PGAs, determined using dynamic light scattering measurements, increased with increasing generation number and when the side-chains adopted random coil instead of α-helical conformations. The PGA samples were labelled with 1-pyrenemethylamine to determine how their structure affected the internal dynamics of the arborescent polymers in solution, from the analysis of their fluorescence spectra and decays. For each pyrene-labelled polymeric construct excimer formation increased with increasing pyrene content, and the efficiency of excimer formation increased with the generation number due to the increased density of the macromolecules. Comparison of the time-resolved fluorescence results acquired in DMF and in DMSO demonstrated that the helical conformation led to slower chain dynamics in DMF and that despite the higher viscosity of DMSO, the polypeptide side-chains were more mobile as a consequence of the random coil conformation of the linear PGA segments. These results suggest that the formation of structural motives inside a polypeptide slows down its internal dynamics.

This dissertation describes the synthesis of molecular machines designed to operate on surfaces (nanocars) or in the solution phase (nanosubmarines), and the study of their diffusion using fluorescence techniques. The design of these molecular machines is aimed to facilitate monitoring of their movement and incorporation of a source of energy for propulsion. To complement previous scanning tunneling microscopy studies of the translation of nanocars on surfaces, chapter 1 describes the synthesis of a family of fluorescently tagged nanocars. The nanocars were functionalized with a tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate (TRITC) fluorescent dye. Single-molecule fluorescence microscopy (SMFM) studies of one of these nanocars revealed that 25% of the nanocars moved on glass. The SMFM results also suggested that the dye hindered the mobility of the nanocars. Seeking to improve the mobility, chapter 2 presents the synthesis of a new set of fluorescent nanocars, featuring a 4,4-difluoro-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene (BODIPY) dye embedded in their axles. The mobility of these inherently fluorescent nanocars on glass was nearly double than that of their TRITC-tagged predecessors. Their diffusion was also studied on reactive-ion-etched glass, and amino-functionalized glass. The results showed that the mobility is affected by the substrate. To equip the nanocars with an energy input for propulsion, two nanocars functionalized with an olefin metathesis catalyst were synthesized, as described in chapter 3. The catalytic activity of these nanocars toward ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) in solution was similar to that of their parent catalysts. As an alternative approach to investigate if chemical propulsion through a ROMP process can be achieved at the molecular level, chapter 4 presents the synthesis of a fluorescent ROMP catalyst, termed a nanosubmarine, and the study of its diffusion using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS). FCS results showed an increase of 20 ± 7% in the diffusion constant of this nanosubmarine in presence of its fuel, cis,cis-1,5-cyclooctadiene. Overall, the work accomplished in this dissertation constitutes a step forward toward development of easily tracked and highly mobile nanocars, and paves the way for the synthesis of truly nanosized chemically propelled molecular machines that operate in the solution phase.

The aim of this diploma work is to improve selectivity and sensitivity in DNA-chips by utilizing fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between conjugated polyelectrolytes (CPEs) and fluorophores. Leclerc and co-workers have presented successful results from studies of super FRET between fluorophore tagged DNA and a CPE during hybridisation of the double strand. Orwar and co-workers have constructed a DNA-chip using standard photo lithography creating a pattern of the hydrophobic photoresist SU-8 and cholesterol tagged DNA (chol-DNA). This diploma work will combine and modify these two ideas to fabricate a improved DNA-chip. Immobilizing of DNA onto surface has been done by using soft lithography. Hydrophobic pattern arises from the poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) stamp. The hydrophobic pattern will attract chol-DNA that is adsorbed to the chip. Different sets of fluorophores are covalently bound to the DNA and adding CPEs to the complex will make FRET occur between CPE and bound fluorophore. We will here show that the specificity in DNA hybridization by using PDMS patterning was high. FRET clearly occurred, especially with the CPEs as donor to the fluorophore Cy5. The intensity of FRET was higher when the fluorophore and the CPE were conjugated to the same DNA strand. The largest difference in FRET intensity between double stranded and single stranded complexes was observed with the CPE tPOMT. Super FRET has been observed but not yet fully proved. The FRET efficiency was lower with the fluorophore Alexa350 as donor compared to the Cy5/CPE complex. Most of the energy transferred from Alexa350 was extinguished by quenching.

A series of pyrene end-labeled monodisperse poly(ethylene oxide)s (PEO(X)-Py2 where X represents the number average molecular weight (Mn) of the PEOs and equals 2, 5, 10 and 16.5 K) and one pyrene mono-labeled PEO (PEO(2K)-Py1) were synthesized and characterized in solution using fluorescence. First, the end-to-end cyclization (EEC) of PEO(X)-Py2 was investigated in seven organic solvents with viscosities (η) ranging from 0.32 to 1.92 mPa•s. The classical Birks scheme was used to globally fit the pyrene monomer and excimer fluorescence decays. The fraction of pyrenes that did not form excimer (ffree) was found to increase with increasing η and Mn. This result was contrary to the assumptions made by Birks’ scheme. To account for this, ffree was assumed to represent the fraction of PEO chains other than the monolabeled polymer impurities that cannot accomplish EEC. A fluorescence blob model (FBM) was applied to handle this assumption in the process of excimer formation for the PEO(X)-Py2 samples in solution. The radius of a blob, Rblob, in organic solvents was determined according to the results retrieved from the FBM. To quantitatively account for the existence of pyrene impurity in pyrene-labeled macromolecules, known amounts of PEO(2K)-Py1 were added into a PEO(2K)-Py2 solution and the fluorescence decays were fitted globally according to the Birks scheme and “model free” (MF) analysis to verify the validation of the MF analysis. The MF analysis was then applied to determine the amounts of 1-pyrenebutyric acid (PyBA) that had been added to a solution of pyrene end-labeled fourth generation dendritic hybrid (Py16-G4-PS). The results demonstrated that the contribution from unwanted fluorescent species could be isolated and quantitatively accounted for by fitting the fluorescence decays of the pyrene monomer and excimer globally with the MF analysis. Since the PEO(X)-Py2 samples form hydrophobic pyrene aggregates in aqueous solution, a sequential model (SM) was proposed to characterize the pyrene excimer formation of PEO(X)-Py2 in water at different polymer concentration (CP). The capture distance over which the pyrenyl end-groups experience hydrophobic forces in water was determined by assuming that the end-to-end distances of the PEO(X)-Py2 samples adopt a Gaussian distribution and that the fraction of pyrenes that are aggregated (fE0) determined by the sequential model corresponds to the fraction of PEO(X)-Py2 chains whose end-to-end distance is smaller than the hydrophobic capture distance. Since a surfactant can interact with a hydrophobically modified water-soluble polymer in aqueous solution, the interactions taking place between PEO(X)-Py2 and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) were investigated at a low PEO(X)-Py2 concentration. The pyrene monomer and excimer fluorescence decays of the PEO(X)-Py2 and SDS solutions were acquired at various SDS concentrations and globally fitted according to the MF analysis to retrieve the parameters that described the kinetics of pyrene excimer formation. At high SDS concentrations above the critical micelle concentration (CMC), the pyrene end-groups of the short-chain samples (PEO(2K)-Py2 and PEO(5K)-Py2) were incorporated inside the same micelle and excimer was formed intramolecularly, while most pyrene groups of the long-chain samples (PEO(10K)-Py2 and PEO(16.5K)-Py2) were isolated into different micelles. Lastly, both the rheological properties and fluorescence behavior of a pyrene-labeled hydrophobically-modified alkali-swellable emulsion (Py-HASE) polymer in basic aqueous solution with SDS were studied. Furthermore, a joint experimental setup that combined a rheometer and a steady-state fluorometer was applied to investigate at the molecular level the effect that a shearing force had on the polymeric network. However, despite the dramatic decrease in solution viscosity with increasing shear rate, no change in the fluorescence spectra was detected, suggesting that changes in the polymeric network that affected the balance of intra- versus intermolecular pyrene associations did not impact the process of excimer formation. Together the experiments described in this thesis represent the broadest set of examples found in the scientific literature where information on the dynamics and level of association of pyrene-labeled polymers has been retrieved through the quantitative analysis of the fluorescence decays acquired with pyrene-labeled polymers in solution.

Small silver nanoclusters are synthesized using polycytosines as matrices. Different size silver nanoclusters ranging from Ag1 to Ag7 exhibit bright emission maxima at blue (480nm), green (525nm), red (650nm), and IR (720nm) wavelengths with varying the excitation wavelengths. With electrophoresis, correlation of emission with mass spectra, the Ag cluster sizes are identified with blue emitters as Ag5, green emitters as Ag4, red emitters as Ag3, and IR emitters as Ag2. Ag4 and Ag5 appear to be partially oxidized while Ag2 and Ag3 are likely fully reduced. Silver cluster stability and their dynamics are observed from silver clusters encapsulated by polycytosine (Cm:Agn). From length study of polycytosine, the longer the polycytosine is, the more stable the larger clusters such as Ag5 are. In time-dependent optical measurements, isosbestic points are observed from Cm:Agn by converting red and IR species into blue and green species, while in the case of temperature-dependent optical properties, with increasing temperature, the blue (oxidized Ag5) and green (oxidized Ag4) emitters convert into the red (Ag3) and IR (Ag2) emitters. NaCl-dependent optical measurements support the assignments of oxidized and fully reduced silver emitters. Circular dichroism (CD) is used to investigate conformational changes in Cm and Cm:Agn with varying conditions (time, temperature and NaCl) and the studies indicate that no conformational changes in Cm:Agn are observed from the time and temperature, while the conformational changes in Cm:Agn are observed from the NaCl studies. From pH-dependent emission study of Cm:Agn, the silver nanocluster dynamics slow down at high pH. Using confocal microscopy technique, single molecules on IR species, C12:Ag2 are investigated and demonstrate that C12:Ag2 is brighter and more photostable than Cy5 which is known to be one of the best IR dyes. With low excitation power, molecules can be monitored for hours, giving bright blinking free, stable fluorescence. The photophysics of this new dye make it a promising candidate for single molecule studies in biological applications.

The design and development of a versatile time resolved fluorescence spectroscopy (TRFS) system capable of near real time data acquisition and processing for potential clinical diagnostic applications is reported. The TRFS apparatus is portable, versatile and compatible with the clinical environment. The main excitation source is a UV nitrogen laser with a nanosecond pulse width and the detection part consists of a dual grating spectrograph coupled with an MCP-PMT. The nitrogen laser also has a dye module attached to it, which enables broadband excitation of the sample. This setup allows rapid acquisition (250 ms for fluorescence decay at a wavelength) of time resolved fluorescence data with a high spectral (as low as 0.5 nm) and temporal (as low as 25 picoseconds) resolution. Alternatively, a state diode pumped pulsed laser can be used for excitation to improve data collection speed. The TRFS system is capable of measuring a broad range of fluorescence emission spectra (visible to near infra-red) and resolving a broad range of lifetimes (ranging from a few hundred picoseconds to several microseconds). The optical setup of the system is flexible permitting the connection of different light sources as well as optical fiber based probes for light delivery/collection depending on the need of the application. This permits the use of the TRFS apparatus in in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo applications. The system is fully automated for real-time data acquisition and processing, facilitating near-real time clinical diagnostic applications.

This thesis is intended as an introductory lab manual on the experimental methods using fluorescence microscopy in modern radiobiology research. It is written for those who are unfamiliar with biology research. It first covers the proper use of laboratory equipment and growth of cell cultures in the lab. Subsequent chapters provide overviews of relevant modern experimental techniques for the quantification of radiation induced DNA damage in cells, and detailed protocols for performing these procedures. Techniques covered include immunostaining with fluorescent antibodies, the comet assay, and plasmid DNA transfections. Results of some straightforward experiments using these techniques are presented.