Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the Master of Information and Communications Technology degree in Information Technology, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2017. / This dissertation reports on the original study that undertakes the development of a frugal information system to support subsistence farmers through the use of the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) as a support tool to assist them in optimal strategic decisions making. The field of agriculture is vast and in-depth and a number of critical factors like soil type, rainfall and temperature are involved that farmers have to take into account. Farmers persistently face the challenges of increasing and sustaining yields to meet with the populaces demand with often limited resources, which makes strategic decisions on what to plant, when to plant, where to plant and how to plant in a particular season imperative. The way in which this study attempts to solve this agricultural decision making problem is with the use of the APSIM. This technology platform provides an advanced simulation of agricultural systems that can enable subsistence farmers to simulate a number of variables ranging from plant types, soil, climate and even management interactions. This research presents a frugal web-based crop planning decision support system that subsistence farmers can take advantage with the use of the APSIM. The APSIM platform was used to run simulations for various regions with the results containing the expected level of success along with other useful information for a specified crop in the vicinity, using state of the art software platforms and tools ranging from Google Maps application programming interfaces, Microsoft’s model view controller framework, JavaScript and others. The validity of this system was tested through a number of design science methods including structural testing and illustrative scenarios, show capability of the information system. The results obtained from this evaluation show a small but powerful tool that has the capability of servicing a multitude of farmers with crop management decisions. / M

The overarching aim of this research was to improve understanding of the synergies and trade-offs between economic and domestic food security benefits associated export-oriented shrimp and prawn aquaculture in a fragile developing country environmental context. The research scope covers the entire ‘seafood system’ incorporating production, distribution, trading and consumption in the south-west coastal region under greater Khulna District, Bangladesh. The primary research objective was to understand causal factors in variation of seafood nutritional quality and health outcomes, exploring correlations with seafood consumption across a range of agro-ecological, aquatic farming systems and socio-economic conditions. The study also focused on differences in intra-household allocation with a special focus on adolescent girls, being amongst the most vulnerable members of society. These objectives necessitated a highly inter-disciplinary approach to understand complex interactions between biophysical aspects (e.g. where and which species are most effective in supplying essential nutrients) and the social norms of food allocation. Fieldwork was conducted in Satkhira, Khulna, and Bagerhat Districts of Khulna Province over 17 months during 2012 to 2015. Four villages across a peak-annual surface water salinity gradient; high saline (>10 ppt), medium saline (>5<10 ppt), low saline (<5 ppt) and freshwater (<0.5 ppt) were selected for case-studies. The thesis begins with a literature review of the evolution of shrimp and prawn farming in Bangladesh and the wider region and identification of knowledge gaps. Research resolved from district to community to household level. Key informant (KI) interviews were used to establish well-being criteria (based on a range of 5 social and economic assets) at community level. In each community a census of households (n=1082 households) were derived from the same interviews and KIs asked to ranked households on the established well-being criteria. Results were validated through a short interview of all the identified households (HH). This sample-frame provided the based for two concurrent survey efforts. Stratified-random selection of 160 HH on two well-being categories (better-off and worse-off) for ‘farm level’ analysis using a semi-structured questionnaire. Key topics included inputs/outputs characteristics, economic benefits and the fate of farmed products were evaluated. Another 240 households with single adolescent girls were selected from the same frame, again with randomized-stratified sampling based on well-being categories for ‘intra-household’ analysis. This resulted in selection of 60 HH per community consisting of 30 ‘better-off’ and 30 worse-off households (further analysis was conducted on a range of secondary sampling outcomes based on livelihood options, intra-household food distribution and aquatic farming assets). A 24-hour food recall method, food frequency questionnaire, food photography and measuring cup sets were used to estimate individual members’ food consumption at the household level. Anthropometric measures (stunting, wasting, BMI, MUAC) and biomarkers (omega-3 index in RBC and LC n-3 PUFA/LC PUFA in whole blood cell) were used to assess food security outcomes of adolescent girls (n=200 subject). In an entirely separate effort, samples of shrimp/prawn and fish polyculture species (57 species and 9 by-products, 1 live feed; n=672) were collected from the major agro-ecologies (four saline gradients; HS, MS, LS and FW) and culture systems (extensive, semi-intensive, intensive, organic and pocket gher). At least 3 sites from each saline gradient (3×4=12 sites) were selected for sampling and pooled samples to represent all the culture system in the region. The major macro and micronutrients of the collected species were analysed and these datasets were used to know the nutritional distribution among the family members in household level study. Two aggregate indices of wealth (or well-being) and aquaculture were developed based on a range of quantitative (ordinal and interval) measures. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) was used to understand how aquaculture influences on wealth gain. Wealth index of the same social well-being did not differ among the agro-ecologies. However, the aquaculture index was varied in agro-ecologies. Most of the households (60-80%) were involved directly in aquaculture however, a majority portion of the households was worse-off (48-64%). Both HS and LS area had more livelihood options due to their proximity to mangrove forest Sundarbans and city amenities, respectively compared to MS and FW area. Ownership of the land did not influence any involvement in aquaculture and yields but he willingness and risk-absorbing capacity of the farmers were the main factor to get involve in aqauculture. In aquatic farming system the importance of export-oriented shellfish yield gradually decreased from HS to FW area (55-20% by volume). The intentional stocking of finfish and PLs were common across the saline areas however the wild caught juveniles and hatchery originated fingerlings were usual in higher and lower saline areas, respectively. The low priced tilapia took the place of wild recruited mangrove fishes in MS area. Diseases, especially the devastating white spot virus (WSSV), frequency were higher in higher saline areas. The indicators like wild recruitment, salinity, water productivity and water management also a vital factor to gain yield. The integration of aquatic and terrestrial crops (rice and dyke crop) in the lower saline areas provide higher yield compared to higher saline areas. However, the net economic returns were largely determined by the aquatic products. The income of ghers in FW and MS area was sensitive to the lower prices of freshwater finfish and tilapia. The protein content in shellfish was higher than the other finfish, however, lower in other essential nutrients. Species living in the higher saline areas contained higher total n-3 PUFA (in weight) and LC n-3 PUFA/LC-PUFA compared to the same species living in lower saline areas. Small Indigenous Species (SIS) and Self-Recruiting Species (SRS) were proven to provide higher micronutrients and total n-3 PUFA than larger fish. Seafood that destined for the international markets contained less n-3 PUFA and micronutrients in comparison to the domestically consumed fish. Customary intra-household food distribution disparity (mainly fish) still exists at household levels where females, especially adolescent girls, were deprived. Fish consumption (>77 g /capita/day) and fish originated protein supply (>25% of total protein intake) was higher than the other part of Bangladesh. The protein consumption of adolescents was 2-3 times higher than the Recommended Nutritional Intake (RNI). However, the energy intake was lower than the required level. High protein, low energy consumption was not reflected in body mass. Micronutrients (zinc) consumption was above the RNI level. However, iron and calcium consumption was less than the RNI. The n-3 PUFA in RBC of adolescent girls accurately reflected their access to, and availability of, oily fish. In the omega-3 index (n-3 PUFA in red blood cell) both HS and MS areas, adolescent females were in the intermediate stage (4-8%), and rest of the two areas were in the undesirable stage (<4%). The n-3 LC-PUFA was around 20-30% of total LC-PUFA content in whole blood and gradually decreased from higher saline to lower saline areas. The thesis concludes that the gher based aquatic animal farming in S-W Bangladesh is a dynamic system operated by both rich and poor. The salinity level and the presence of mangrove forest make the farming system dynamic. The holistic scenario suggested aquaculture in ghers is a family driven small scale polyculture where varieties of aquatic foods are produced both for global and local value chain. Higher amounts of valued products (both in terms of nutrition and price), less disease susceptibility, more alternative livelihood options both in HS and LS were found in better position than the other two sites, however the nutritional content of fish and its manifestation in adolescents strongly mirrors agro-ecologies irrespective of social position of households. The thesis provides an important, grounded importance of the system and the linkage of the community people for livelihoods, food production and food security. The dynamic systems were understood and effective messages formulated for the policy makers. In doing so, the thesis contributes to an understanding of how small-scale polyculture equally benefited local food security and macroeconomic growth of a developing country.

Worsening climate changes effects are predicted to increase the severity and frequency of extreme weather events (EWE), which can disrupt food systems, from the local to global level, and compromise community food security. In the rural U.S., food insecurity, poverty, low economic growth, and population loss are prevalent, and rural communities often lack the physical capital to bolster community resiliency to climate change adaptation. In 2011, Tropical Storm Irene (TS Irene) in Vermont was the most damaging EWE the state’s history. Severely damaged roads, infrastructure, homes, and land, rendered many rural towns isolated for up to several days. The levels and types of social capital (bridging and/or bonding) affect social cohesion, which in turn influences how the community responds to an EWE. Rural Vermont communities isolated by TS Irene had to respond to a disruption of basic needs, including food security, without the ability to depend on outside resources. We investigate how social capital influenced these community responses to TS Irene, and how the community actions affected community food security. To better understand how social capital influences community response to food insecurity following an EWE, we created a social capital framework on food security. We then conducted thirty-three semi-structured interviews in three Vermont communities known to have been severely affected by TS Irene, and isolated for several days. Using grounded theory, analysis resulted in social capital having a profound influence on community responses to food security following an EWE. Additionally, the type of social capital – bonding and/or bridging – affected both how the community mitigated food insecurity in the short-term, and upheld food security in the weeks following TS Irene. We found that not only do high degrees of social capital affect community response to acute food security needs after an EWE, but also that a community’s sense of place is different depending on the level of community social capital present prior to an EWE. The community response also shaped the community’s perception of, and ability to creating social capital five years after the event. Previous research indicates social capital is important in both community food security and climate shock responses. We discuss the need for rural development and community social capital to build rural resilience and adaptation for future EWE. As such, we suggest that promoting the development of social capital within rural communities through community development - creation of public events, investment in public infrastructure and schools, and the promotion of locally owned and operated businesses - can build resiliency and adaptation to future EWE by promoting the growth of community social capital, both bonding and bridging, within rural communities.

Food security research with resettled refugees in the United States and other Global North countries has found alarmingly high rates of food insecurity, up to 85% of surveyed households. This is well above the current US average of 12.7%. However, the most common survey tool used to measure food security status in the US, the US Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM), has not been sufficiently validated for resettled refugee populations, leading to the risk that the HFSSM may actually be underestimating the prevalence of food insecurity among resettled refugees in the US. Though research has attempted to establish validity of the HFSSM for resettled refugees through statistical associations with other risk factors for food insecurity, no efforts have been made to first explore and establish the content validity of the HFSSM for measuring food security among resettled refugees. Content validity is an essential component of construct validity. It first requires a qualitative theoretical foundation for demonstrating the relationships of the test contents to the underlying construct (ie food security) that the test intends to measure. Our research explores these theoretical relationships through a qualitative grounded study of food insecurity and food management experiences described by resettled refugees living in Vermont. Dr. Linda Berlin and I conducted 5 semi-structured focus groups in the summer and fall of 2015 with Bhutanese (2 groups), Somali Bantu (1 group), and Iraqi (2 groups) resettled refugees. During the focus groups, we inquired about food management practices under typical circumstances and under circumstances of limited household resources, as well as difficulties participants have faced in these processes. Additionally, I conducted 18 semi-structured interviews and 1 focus group in the same time frame with service providers who have worked with resettled refugees in capacities primarily related to food, health, and household resources. These interviews provided additional data about context, household food management practices among clients, and triangulating data for the focus groups. A Grounded Theory analysis of the focus group data yielded 5 major emergent themes: 1) Past food insecurity experiences of resettled refugee participants exerted significant influence on the subjective perception of current food insecurity. 2) Barriers other than just financial resources restricted participants’ food security, especially for recently resettled refugees. 3) Preferred foods differed significantly between generations within households. 4) Common elements of quality and quantity included in the definition and measurement of food security did not translate into the languages or experiences of food insecurity among participants. 5) Strategic and adaptive food management practices prevailed among participants, highlighting the temporality and ambiguity of food security concepts. These themes present potential problems of content validity for every HFSSM question. They also reveal the importance of food security concepts that are not covered by the HFSSM, including elements of nutritional adequacy of food, food safety, social acceptability of food and of means of acquiring food, short and long term certainty of food access, and food utilization. I conclude by discussing implications of our findings for service providers and local governments in Vermont who seek to better serve resettled refugee and other New American populations.

Magister Public Health - MPH / In the era of AIDS, food and nutrition are becoming more of a priority for many households and communities. This is more so now that treatment is available for people infected with HIV and AIDS. Food and nutrition are fundamentally intertwined with HIV transmission and the impacts of AIDS. Evidence of the ways in which food insecurity and malnutrition may interfere with the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy is well documented. Aim: The purpose of the study was to inform improvements in food security interventions for PLWHA through an investigation of existing food security interventions in the Khomas Region, Namibia. / South Africa

Magister Economicae - MEcon / Kenya has continued to record decreasing child mortality rates in recent years, with available data showing that the under-five mortality rate was 85 per 1000 live births in 2010, down from 117 in 1997 (World Bank, 2012). However, the country continues to battle with poor anthropometric status of children (stunting, wasting and underweight). The country also faces high incidences of food insecurity. It is estimated that one third of the country’s population is food and nutrition insecure, with about 10 million of Kenyans suffering from chronic food insecurity (ROK, 2011). The worst affected are children, who are deprived of sufficient nutrients required for proper growth and development. This study seeks to analyse the relationship between household food security and the anthropometric status of children. Specific objectives include identifying the prevalence and predictors of poor anthropometry, identifying the extent of food insecurity in the country and investigating the link between food security and the anthropometric status of children. The research uses data from the Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey (2005/2006). The survey which was carried out for a period of 12 months covered the entire country and collected data on the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the households. It also collected data on child anthropometric measurements and households’ food consumption patterns. The statistical software package STATA SE v.12 is used to run ordinary linear (OLS) and logistical regressions in order to analyse the relationship between household food security and the anthropometric status of children. Results show that the prevalence of malnutrition is high in the country with stunting coming out as the main form of malnutrition. Dietary diversity, a measure of food security, is found to be highest in the urban areas. Results from the regression analysis show that a Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) is positively associated with better anthropometry, with the prevalence of malnutrition decreasing with an increase in the score. The study also found that other risk factors associated with poor anthropometry are age of the child, gender, area of residence, diarrhoea, education, household size and income. The paper concludes with suggestions on measures that need to be put in place to curb child malnutrition.

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / Social dynamics and sustainability in three community garden projects in the City of Johannesburg M. Lewis MPhil Master’s full thesis, the Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies (PLAAS), Faculty of Economic and Management Science, University of the Western Cape This Master’s thesis explores the social dynamics of three urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) community projects in the City of Johannesburg (COJ), Gauteng. It explores how these projects originated, are organised and supported, while describing how these factors impact on their sustainability and on the livelihoods of the people who work within them. Sayer’s (1984) combined, extensive and intensive research design was adopted and utilised participant observation methods, key informant interviews, literature reviews, and surveys to gather data. A political economy framework was used to situate this data. The thesis argues that in Johannesburg, UPA has an important role to play as a livelihood strategy for city residents. Urban food production is typically one of many livelihood strategies that the urban poor pursue to survive in the city. Support offered to UPA needs to consider these dynamics and aim to provide the necessary space and assistance to facilitate such varied livelihood activities. I argue that the current co-operative model that is being promoted for UPA community projects is not suitable within this multiple livelihood context and that a reconceptualization of the model should be considered that incorporates an allotment approach. An allotment model, appropriately tailored to each individual context, could enable multiplelivelihood strategies to flourish. The thesis also contends that informal food networks are important food distribution mechanisms within the South African urban context and that local food producers should be supported in their efforts to supply to them. I argue that an allotment model would support informal food networks which could ultimately foster various niche market sectors. Ultimately, I argue for a better conceived support structure for UPA community projects that is less prescriptive, more facilitative, and bases its support and development solely in participatory decision-making and community engagement. Successful and sustainable agricultural projects in urban and peri-urban areas will be key components in ensuring food security in Africa in the future.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / With changes in climatic conditions being increasingly noticed around the world in the past 2 decades, drought has been identified as one of the main causes of food insecurity. Given the inseparable nature of food security and poverty, it has been impossible for Africa to attain the poverty reduction Millennium Development Goal as most of the continent still suffers food insecurity. Impacts of the drought described as one of the worst droughts which occurred in West an East Africa between 2009-2011, are still felt in some parts of Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti and parts of Northern Tanzania close to Kenya. With almost 70% of sub- Saharan Africa’s population involved in agriculture, the occurrence of drought not only causes failure in food production but also negatively impacts food security and increases poverty. Understanding the impacts of drought on household food security is important for reducing household’s risk of poverty. Following this the study proposes policies for reducing the impact of drought on food security and other policies that can ensure complete eradication of food insecurity.

Magister Legum - LLM / The aim of the research is to establish how trade distorting agricultural subsidies have impacted South Africa’s agricultural exports. The research will explore trade distorting subsidies and how South Africa’s trade liberalisation approach relative to its trading partners have impacted South Africa’s trade output, as well as suggesting effective policy recommendations for South Africa’s agricultural trade going forward.

A growing interest in urban food production has prompted many North American cities to revise their municipal policies regarding agricultural activities. In March 2011, the City Council of Burlington, VT, created the Urban Agriculture Task Force to investigate and recommend policies to provide city officials with tools to effectively govern urban agriculture. In coordination with the Task Force as a community partner, I used a governance framework and participatory action research (PAR) to analyze: (1) the needs of local stakeholders, including urban agriculture practitioners, the general Burlington community, and government officials; (2) the policy tools available to the City of Burlington, including the direct provision of services, regulation, public information, and partnerships with other organizations; (3) the actors and relationships present in Burlington’s urban agriculture governance network; and (4) policy approaches used in other cities. Based on this analysis, over 50 policy recommendations were developed for the City of Burlington, ranging from ordinance revisions to the development of new urban agriculture initiatives. Key findings include that (1) a balance must be struck between stakeholder needs (e.g. practitioners desire that regulations be minimal, while municipal officials need measurable standards to ease implementation); (2) a legal basis for governing some aspects of urban agriculture, such as the humane treatment of livestock, is needed, but other aspects, such as managing neighbor conflicts or connecting people to available land, are not easily regulated and require innovative programming; and (3) the City has an opportunity to partner with other organizations that are better suited to provide technical expertise to practitioners. These recommendations lay the groundwork for the City to better govern and support current and future urban agriculture activities.