<p dir="ltr">Global food demand increases rapidly as a result of continuously growing population has raised severe concerns with food security. To overcome this critical challenge, food systems must be transformed to produce food with not only higher yield but also better nutritional quality. Therefore, food processing, as a critical step in food production chain that turn agricultural products into food, needs to be innovated through applications of cutting-edge technologies.</p><p dir="ltr">Microbubbles (MBs) are tiny gas-filled bubbles with distinctive physicochemical characteristics, including slow rising speed and long lifetime in liquid, large surface area per unit of gas volume, high internal pressure, high gas dissolution rate, hydrophobic and negatively charged surface and production of reactive oxygen species. Additionally, MB dispersion can enhance the heat and mass transfer properties of liquid. These features have led MBs to numerous applications in the fields of disease treatment, anaerobic digestion, and wastewater treatment, however, their applications in food processing have not thoroughly explored.</p><p dir="ltr">In this dissertation, MB technology was applied to different unit operations of food processing, including freezing, concentration and extraction, and the effects of MBs on process efficiency and food product quality were comprehensively studied. In the first study, MB-infused freezing medium was used for grape tomato immersion freezing. MBs markedly reduced the drip loss of tomato by 13.7–17.0% and improved its firmness, which were correlated to the accelerated nucleation process and formation of small ice crystals during freezing. The impact of MBs on water evaporation during apple juice concentration was investigated in the second study. MBs dramatically enhanced water evaporation, and concentration at bubble gas temperature of 40 °C and juice temperature of 70 °C showed the largest increase in the evaporation rate, by 104%. Moreover, although air-MBs showed an oxidation effect on both frozen tomato and concentrated juice, N₂-MBs were found to be an ideal alternative which much better preserved the nutritional values of processed foods. Lastly, MBs and cold plasma-MBs were incorporated into citric acid solution for extracting pectin from apple pomace. MBs present in extracting solvent increased the extraction yield by 18–21%, and extraction with plasma-MBs showed even higher yields by up to 30%. Additionally, MB and cold plasma-assisted extraction were found more effective in extracting complex RG-I pectin.</p><p dir="ltr">This dissertation develops various approaches to incorporating MBs into conventional unit operations and enhancing their performance. With these novel applications explored, MB technology will not only increase the productivity but also reduce the energy, water and chemical use of food processing. Ultimately, MB-assisted processes are expected to play an important role in improving the sustainability of the food industry.</p>

<p dir="ltr">Liquid hydrogen peroxide (LHP) and vapor hydrogen peroxide (VHP) efficacy as a sterilant for <i>Bacillus atrophaeus</i> and <i>Geobacillus stearothermophilus</i> spores in aseptic packaging systems under commercial sterilization conditions were evaluated in this research. The work centers on quantifying and modeling the kinetic parameters that impact peroxide sterilization efficacy, including the D and z values, that relate to the change in concentration required for a 1-log reduction in spore population and a novel Z_conc parameter This comprehensive study is divided into four key investigations, each contributing critical insights to the overall understanding of peroxide sterilization processes.</p><p dir="ltr">The first study examined the inactivation kinetics of <i>B. atrophaeus</i> spores in liquid hydrogen peroxide. By evaluating different concentrations (20%, 28%, and 33%) and temperatures (up to 82.2°C), the study revealed that higher concentrations and elevated temperatures significantly enhanced spore inactivation. The Weibull model provided a more accurate fit for the data, indicating a non-linear relationship between spore reduction and exposure time.</p><p dir="ltr">The second part of the research explored the use of VHP for sterilizing <i>B. atrophaeus</i> spores. With VHP concentrations of 2500 ppm and 4450 ppm at various temperatures, the study demonstrated that higher concentrations and temperatures are highly effective for spore inactivation. Both log-linear and Weibull models accurately described the inactivation kinetics, with the Weibull model showing a slightly better fit, emphasizing the potential of VHP in achieving commercial sterility.</p><p dir="ltr">The third investigation focused on developing predictive models for VHP concentration and its efficacy in spore inactivation. The study evaluated VHP concentrations ranging from 2.32 mg/L to 7.35 mg/L and their impact on spore inactivation rates. The Weibull model proved particularly effective in predicting the inactivation of <i>G. stearothermophilus</i> and <i>B. atrophaeus</i> spores, offering a robust tool for optimizing sterilization protocols in aseptic packaging.</p><p dir="ltr">The fourth and final study of the research investigated the influence of surface roughness on spore survival during VHP sterilization cycles on plastic packaging materials. Artificial roughness on high-density polyethylene (HDPE) coupons was created using sandpaper with different grits. <i>B. atrophaeus</i> spores were applied to both roughened and smooth HDPE surfaces. The study finds that rougher surfaces provide more shelter for spores, reducing sterilization efficacy. For example, surfaces roughened with P-36 grit showed a 2.75 log reduction in spore count, whereas smoother surfaces with P-220 grit achieved a 4.42 log reduction. Contact angle measurements indicated that increased roughness led to more hydrophilic surfaces, with water contact angles decreasing from 149.7° for the pristine sample to 105.4° for the P-36 sample. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images confirmed that spores were more likely to reside in the valleys of rough surfaces, highlighting the importance of surface characteristics in optimizing VHP sterilization protocols.</p><p dir="ltr">The findings of this dissertation underscore the significant impact of hydrogen peroxide concentration, application conditions, and packaging material surface properties on the efficacy of spore inactivation during sterilization. By providing a comprehensive understanding of these factors, the research contributes to the development of optimized aseptic sterilization protocols, enhancing the reliability and safety of aseptically packaged food and pharmaceutical products. This work will ensure compliance with regulatory standards and improve food safety in commercial manufacturing, laying a solid foundation for future research and practical applications in VHP sterilization technology.</p>

<p dir="ltr">This dissertation delves into three projects within the realms of image processing, computer vision, and machine/deep learning. The primary objective of the first project is the detection of heavy metal particle concentrations using microfluidic paper-based devices. The second project revolves around the analysis of crystals within microscopic images. The third project centers around zero-shot action recognition in video sequences, utilizing a multi-modality deep learning framework that is refined through prompt tuning to enhance its performance.</p>

<p dir="ltr">This thesis explores the complex relationship between <i>Listeria</i> <i>monocytogenes</i> and food processing environments (FPEs), focusing on the persistence mechanisms of this pathogen despite rigorous sanitation efforts. <i>L</i>. <i>monocytogenes</i> is a significant public health concern due to its association with high mortality rates in vulnerable populations. Recent studies, including the first chapter of this thesis, have highlighted the challenges in eradicating this pathogen from FPEs, suggesting that biofilms play a crucial role in its persistence. Despite various strategies and enhanced sanitation protocols, the eradication of <i>L</i>. <i>monocytogenes</i> remains elusive, underlining the need for a deeper understanding of its biofilm-associated resilience. Chapter two synthesizes findings from a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies examining the microbial communities on FPE surfaces through metagenomics, aiming to uncover patterns that might explain <i>Listeria</i>'s long-term survival. In chapter three, the thesis delves into the nuanced role of biofilm composition and microbial diversity as factors enabling the persistence of <i>Listeria monocytogenes</i> in food processing environments (FPEs), despite comprehensive sanitation efforts. This section builds on the understanding that <i>L. monocytogenes</i> does not inherently form robust biofilms but thrives within complex microbial communities present on FPE surfaces. The findings presented in this thesis contribute to a more profound comprehension of <i>L. monocytogenes</i>' survival strategies, proposing a shift in focus towards the microbial ecosystem's metabolic interplays for the development of targeted control measures. This approach not only opens new avenues for research but also suggests practical implications for enhancing food safety protocols by considering the broader microbial dynamics at play within biofilms on FPE surfaces.</p>

<p>Maize is one of the top sources of food starch. Industrial use of starch is mostly in its native form and used due to their functional and structural properties. Native starch properties and functionalities have been altered using chemical. An alternative for the development of native starch substituents with desirable starch properties is the use of mutagenesis techniques to increase genetic variation in maize kernels. With this approach, a highly diverse library of native starches with different properties are produced. Traditional analysis of the functional and structural properties requires generous amounts of material as well as a time-consuming and costly breeding process to obtain enough kernels. To address this difficulty, high-throughput techniques are proposed for studying starch properties and functions which includes a 1) single kernel sampling method for the isolation of milligrams of starch, and techniques for studying starch based on functional properties, 2) retrogradation and 3) shear resistance, using low-volume low-concentration starch pastes.</p><p>First, three mechanical approaches were evaluated for the collection of endosperm samples from individual kernels: razor blade, 1.5 mm drill bit, and trephine bur. Furthermore, two methods for the isolation of crude starch from endosperm samples (steeping method and combination of proteases and sonication) were compared. In this study, the mechanical approaches were evaluated using the recovery rate, throughput, and germination rate of sampled kernels. Moreover, yield determination, particle size distribution, and morphological evaluation using a light microscope were performed on crude starch isolated from the endosperm samples. The use of trephine bur to collect endosperm samples and isolation of crude starch using protease digestion and sonication showed the best combination for a high-throughput setting. </p><p>Second, a high-throughput technique using milligram sample for the screening of retrogradation-resistant starch was evaluated by comparing two spectrophotometric techniques: turbidity method and molecular rotor (MR). MRs are fluorescent probes with high sensitivity to the viscosity of their environment, polarity of the media, molecular crowding, and free volume. After excitation, MRs relax through rotational movement and reduces the emission of fluorescence. In this study, hydroxypropylated waxy corn starch (WCS) and hydroxypropylated normal corn starch (NCS) were used and their retrogradation kinetics was compared with retrogradation kinetics of native WCS and NCS. </p><p>It was found that the molecular rotor 9-(2-carboxy-2-cyaovinyl)-julolidine (CCVJ) was effective to sense changes during slow retrogradation of amylose-containing starch pastes. Development of elastic modulus of retrograded NCS pastes obtained from dynamical rheology showed high correlation with the development of fluorescence intensity of the CCVJ. Furthermore, rate of retrogradation using fluorescence intensity was affected by the introduction of a retrogradation inhibitor, hydroxypropyl groups. Accelerated retrogradation of low-concentration WCS pastes was measured using the turbidity method and fluorescence intensity of CCVJ in a microplate. Accelerated retrogradation was performed by subjecting the low-concentration WCS pastes to six freeze-thaw cycles of -20 ºC for 1 hour and 30 ºC for 1 hour. Overall, development of turbidity resulted in the more sensitive technique to detect rate of retrogradation of amylopectin-containing starch. </p><p>The last part of this research studied the use of CCVJ as a technique to identify shear-resistant starch in starch slurries using milligram sample. For this purpose, WCS was cross-linked with sodium trimetaphosphate (STMP) and phosphoryl chloride (POCl₃). Low-volume starch slurries having CCVJ were prepared ranging from 0.5% to 1% starch concentration in a 96-well PCR plates and subjected to heat and shear treatments. It was found that fluorescence intensity measured in native WCS pastes were the lowest. Furthermore, fluorescence intensity of the CCVJ in the gelatinized starch increased as the amount of cross-linker increased in the cross-linked WCS. After shear treatments, the same trend in fluorescence intensity increase was recorded in all the crosslinked WCS. Results obtained using fluorescence intensity were compared with rapid viscosity analyzer (RVA) and images from microscope. Results obtained from both techniques corroborated the findings using fluorescence intensity.</p><p>In general, the findings of this research provide new insights into the possibilities of developing a high-throughput screening platform of milligram starch sample based on their physical properties. </p>

With the advent of industrialization and food processing techniques the sizes of the cereal bran have been drastically reduced. In my thesis, I have tested the effect, if any, of wheat bran and maize bran particle size, in vitro, on the gut microbiota community structure by 16S rRNA sequencing and their function, by Short chain fatty acids (acetate, propionate, butyrate) production. In turn, we also linked the microbiota and SCFA differences to different chemical composition amongst variously sized fractions of wheat and maize bran.

In the human gut, bacterial fermentation of dietary fibers and proteins produces metabolites, primarily as short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), that are highly beneficial for host health. However, unlike dietary fiber, bacterial fermentation of protein additionally generates potentially toxic substances such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, amines, and indoles. It is believed that most gut bacteria favor utilization of dietary fiber over that of protein for energy. Therefore, when fermentable dietary fiber is readily available to colonic bacteria, protein fermentation, and its subsequent potentially toxic metabolites, remains relatively low. Dietary intake primarily determines the quantity of dietary fiber and protein substrate available to the gut microbiota and the resulting profile of metabolites produced. Increased protein consumption is associated with deleterious health outcomes such as higher risk of colorectal cancer and type II diabetes. Conversely, diets following US dietary recommendations are high in fiber, which promote a healthy microbiome and are protective against disease. Diets following the recommendation are also moderate in protein intake so that, ultimately, far more fiber than protein is available for colonic bacterial fermentation. On the contrary, dietary fiber intake is chronically low in a standard Western diet, while protein consumption is above dietary recommendations, which results in nearly equal amounts of dietary fiber and protein available for gut microbial fermentation. Furthermore, the popularity of high-protein diets for athletes, as well as that of high-protein low-carbohydrate diets for weight loss, may flip fiber and protein substrate proportions upside down, resulting in more protein than fiber available in the gut for fermentation. The objective of this study was to elucidate how substrate ratios in protein-fiber mixtures affect protein fermentation and metabolites, as well as examine the degree to which fiber source may influence these outcomes. Each dietary fiber source [fructooligosaccharides (FOS), apple pectin (Pectin), a wheat bran and raw potato starch mixture (WB+PS), and an even mixture of the three aforementioned fibers (Even Mix)] and protein were combined in three ratios and provided as substrate for in vitro fecal fermentation to understand how low, medium, and high fiber inclusion levels influence fermentation outcomes. They were compared to 100% protein and fiber (each different fiber) controls. Branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs), metabolites produced exclusively from protein fermentation, were used as a measure of protein fermentation; the data were normalized based on the initial quantity of protein within the substrate. In protein-fiber substrate mixtures, only FOS and Even Mix inhibited BCFAs (mM/g protein basis) and only when they made up at least half of the substrate. Unexpectedly, the rate of protein fermentation was increased when the protein-fiber substrate contained 25% WB+PS fiber, possibly due to the starch component of the fiber. There was evidence that when pH drops during fermentation, as was the case for protein-FOS mixtures, it played a significant role in suppressing protein fermentation. Ammonia production was not largely affected by increasing the proportion of dietary fiber. A significant reduction did not occur until FOS made up at least 50% of the protein-fiber substrate; for Pectin, WB+PS, and Even Mix fibers, 75% inclusion was required for a significant decrease in ammonia. Interestingly, protein was butyrogenic. Protein as the sole substrate produced more butyrate than either Pectin or Even Mix as the sole substrates, and in fact, addition of Pectin to protein significantly reduced butyrate concentrations. However, the possible benefits of butyrate produced via protein fermentation needs to be tempered by the production of potentially toxic compounds and the association between protein fermentation and colorectal cancer. Overall, the thesis findings showed protein fermentation to be relatively stable and not easily influenced by increasing the availability of dietary fiber, and no clear evidence of microbial preference for carbohydrates over protein was found.

<p>  </p> <p>School-based agricultural education programs use laboratories to develop cognitive, psychomotor, and procedural skills (Phipps et al., 2008). It is important to help preservice teachers develop the ability to design instruction to cultivate skills that are taught in laboratory settings. Shulman (1986) authored a term called Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), which is a teacher’s knowledge of teaching. Animal science dissection was the topic chosen for this study, as PCK is topic-specific (Chan & Hume, 2018). There are many interpretations of PCK. The Refined Consensus Model (RCM) of PCK in Science Education (Carlson et al., 2019) was the conceptual model used in this study, as it is the most recent PCK model, and was developed by experts in science education from multiple countries. This model asserts that PCK is comprised of three realms: Collective PCK (cPCK), Personal PCK (pPCK), and Enacted PCK (ePCK). The first purpose of this study was to describe preservice agriculture teachers' Professional Knowledge Bases (which informs pPCK), before and after instruction, on the topic of animal science dissection in a Laboratory Practices in Agricultural Education (LPAE) course. The second purpose was to describe preservice agriculture teachers' cPCK, after instruction, on animal science dissection in an LPAE course. Content Representations (CoRes), a common tool used for PCK research, were used identify evidence of the Professional Knowledge Bases (PKBs) in preservice agriculture teachers’ instructional planning. Results from this study showed elevated descriptions of Professional Knowledge Bases, and participants collectively gained new ideas and collaboration skills. Overall LPAE dissection experience appeared to push the depth of student thinking and ability to make connections with future learning. Future research recommendations include using the RCM of PCK (Carlson et al., 2019) and CoRes in agricultural education; more PCK research, specifically exploring the development of Curricular Knowledge, on preservice teachers in agricultural education; and PCK research on other topics in agricultural education. It is recommended to not only include PCK development in teacher preparation programs but also have more than one exposure to PCK development.</p>

The cell wall provides a complex and rigid structure to the plant for support, protection from environmental factors, and transport. It is mainly composed of polysaccharides, proteins, and lignin. Arabinoxylan (AX), pectin (P), and cellulose (C) are the main components of cereal cell walls and are particularly concentrated in the bran portion of the grain. Cereal arabinoxylans create networks in plant cell walls in which other cell wall polysaccharides are imbedded forming complex matrices. These networks give an insolubility profile to plant cell wall. A previous study in our lab showed that soluble crosslinked arabinoxylan with relatively high residual ferulic acid from corn bran provided advantageous <i>in vitro </i>human fecal fermentation products and promoted butyrogenic gut bacteria. In the present work, arabinoxylan was isolated from corn bran with a mild sodium hydroxide concentration to keep most of its ferulic acid content. Highly ferulated corn bran arabinoxylan was crosslinked to create an insoluble network to mimic the cereal grain cell wall matrices. Firstly, arabinoxylan film (Cax-F), pectin film (P-F), the film produced by embedding pectin into arabinoxylan networks (CaxP-F), and cellulose embedding arabinoxylan matrices (CaxC-F), and embedding the mixture of cellulose and pectin into arabinoxylan networks (CaxCP-F) were fabricated into simulated plant cell wall materials. Water solubility of films in terms of monosaccharide content was examined and revealed that Cax-F was insoluble, and P-F was partially insoluble, and nanosized pectin and cellulose were partially entrapped inside the crosslinked-arabinoxylan matrices. In a further study, these films were used in an <i>in vitro </i>human fecal fermentation assay to understand how gut microbiota access and utilize the different simulated plant cell walls to highlight the role of each plant cell wall component during colonic fermentation. <i>In vitro </i>fecal samples, obtained from three healthy donors were used to ferment the films (Cax-F, P-F, CaxP-F, CaxC-F, and CaxCP-F) and controls (free form of cell wall components -Cax, P and C). The fabricated films that were compositionally similar to cell walls were fermented more slowly than the free polysaccharides (Cax and P). Besides, CaxP-F produced the highest short chain fatty acids (SCFA) amount among the films after 24 hour <i>in vitro </i>fecal fermentation. Regarding specific SCFA, butyrate molar ratio of all films was significantly higher than the free, soluble Cax and P. 16S rRNA gene sequencing explained the differences of the butyrate proportion derived from specific butyrogenic bacteria. Particularly, some bacteria, especially in a butyrogenic genera from Clostridium cluster XIVa, were increased in arabinoxylan films forms compared to the native free arabinoxylan polysaccharide. However, no changes were observed between P and P-F in terms of both end products (SCFA) and microbiota compositions. Moreover, CaxP-F promoted the butyrogenic bacteria in fecal samples compared with pectin alone, arabinoxylan alone, and the arabinoxylan film. Differences in matrix insolubility of the film, which was high for the covalently linked arabinoxylan films, but low for the non-covalent ionic-linked pectin film, appears to play an important role in targeting Clostridial bacterial groups. Overall, the cell wall-like films were useful to understand which bacteria degrade them related to their physical form and location of the fiber polymers. This study showed how fabricated model plant cell wall films influence specificity and competitiveness of some gut bacteria and suggest that fabricated materials using natural fibers might be used for targeted support of certain gut bacteria and bacterial groups.

<p> Despite the continuous breeding efforts towards improving yield, seed quality, and yield-related traits, there is still little understanding of several aspects of soybean breeding; however, crop breeding is ever-evolving, and plant breeding technologies offer immense potential for accelerating genetic improvement in soybeans. This thesis explores different frameworks to further characterize tradeoffs among seed quality traits, soybean maturity's genetic architecture, and selections for yield. We explored the interactions of carbohydrate traits with other seed traits, flowering, and maturity using data from a large panel of <em>G. max </em>accessions from the USDA soybean germplasm collection. We found a negative correlation between sucrose and protein and a negative correlation between protein and oil, representing a significant challenge for improving seed quality. In contrast to other well-documented correlations, such as protein and oil, correlations between raffinose and oil content seem more specific to populations and environments and are unlikely to generalize to the whole specie; however, the correlations of sucrose with protein and seed size appears to be more stable. In addition, we performed a genome-wide association analysis (GWA) to detect novel QTLs for flowering (R1) time, maturity (R8) time, and reproductive length (RL) using a soybean panel with the same genotype for major <em>E </em>genes (<em>e1-as/E2/E3). </em>While major maturity <em>E</em> genes are known to have pleiotropic effects on R1 and R8, we found two QTLs associated with R8 and RL that do not control R1, suggesting minor-effect, trait-specific loci are also involved in controlling R1 and R8. In addition, w<em>e identified six genes that may play essential roles in regulating R1, R8, and RL; however, further validation of the QTLs and f</em>ine mapping and map-based cloning studies of the candidate genes are necessary before they can be used in breeding programs. Lastly, we conducted a selection experiment in progeny row (PR) populations of four breeding programs to compare the agronomic performance of lines selected by breeders using their usual selection methods to lines selected through prediction of yield performance using new sources of data and information. Our results suggest that aerial average canopy coverage (ACC) used as a secondary trait in combination with field spatial variation adjustment is an efficient high throughput methodology to effectively select high-yielding lines from non-replicated experiments at the PR stage. </p>