O arroz é uma das principais culturas irrigadas no mundo e com as maiores quantidades de água aplicada. No estado de Santa Fe, Argentina, o arroz é a principal cultura irrigada, com eficiências de irrigação muito baixas (25 a 40%). O método tradicional de inundação contínua (Ic) não aproveita as precipitações pluviais, que representam entre 30 a 40% da evapotranspiração real (ETr). Foram desenvolvidos experimentos em diferentes agro-ecossistemas em San Javier (Santa Fe), objetivando avaliar o arroz com aspersão (AS), inundação intermitente (In) e Ic, visando aumentar as eficiências de irrigação e de uso da água. Na safra 2011-12 predominou Planossolo nátrico (PlaNa), altamente adensado e, na safra 2012-13, Regossolo abrupto (RegAb), com boa drenagem. A variedade de arroz utilizada foi Puitá INTA CL, índica e anaeróbica. A aplicação do Nitrogênio (2011-2012) foi feita de duas maneiras: 20% na semeadura e o restante no perfilhamento, segundo manejo habitual dos produtores (adubação tradicional, AT), e a maneira alternativa, parcelando a adubação (AP). Na safra 2012-2013 foram avaliadas diferentes doses de adubação: T0, testemunha; T1 e T2, com 20 e 40% do requerimento total do N respectivamente. O delineamento estatístico em 2011-12 foi parcelas divididas e fatorial em 2012-13. Em Ic foi mantida uma altura de água constante (6 a 8 cm) e, em In, manteve-se sempre o solo PlaNa saturado e RegAb com potencial mátrico de -10 kPa. Em AS, no PlaNa utilizou-se como controle -25 kPa mudando para -10 kPa no RegAb. Foi realizado um balanço hídrico (BH) determinando, entre outras componentes, lâmina de irrigação bruta (Lib); ETr e percolação profunda (PerIr). Foi observada a fenologia, avaliada as taxas de crescimento e índice de área foliar. Na colheita foi determinada a produtividade (PG), seus componentes e concentrações de N no tecido vegetal. Foram determinadas as eficiências de irrigação, de uso de água, água virtual e pegada hídrica. Em 2011-12 a PG foi semelhante nos manejos Ic e In (média de 9,8 Mg ha-1), com redução de 24% no AS devido a forte estresse hídrico. No PlaNa a taxa de percolação foi 2,8 mm d-1, resultando a Lib e PerIr dos manejos In e Ic quase iguais, de 6.300 e 1.540 m3 ha-1 respectivamente. Em 2012- 13 a PG foi similar em todos os manejos da água (média de 10 Mg ha-1), com resposta significativa às doses de adubação. A taxa de percolação do RegAb triplicou a PlaNa, pelo que a Lib e PerIr dos manejos Ic, In e AS apresentaram grandes diferenças: 11.600, 9.120 e 5.320 m3 ha-1 para Lib e 8.580, 6.190 e 1.980 m3 ha-1 para PerIr. A biomassa aérea teve comportamento contrastante, com crescimento sigmóide em 2011-12, embora linear em 2012-13. A pegada hídrica da produção de arroz em San Javier foi de 261,7 Mm3 ano-1, representando a água azul, verde e cinza 52, 41 e 7%, respectivamente. In apresentou-se como o manejo mais versátil, sendo sua utilização promissora, no entanto AS pode ser utilizado em solos com boa drenagem. Nestes solos seria mais apropriada a adubação parcelada. / Rice is one of the main crops under irrigation in the world, with the highest amount of water applied. In Santa Fe, Argentina, rice is the main crop under irrigation. The traditional method of continuous flooding (CF) does not use rainfall (R), which represents 30 to 40% of the actual evapotranspiration (ETa). Experiments were conducted in different agroecosystems in San Javier, Santa Fe, with the aim of assessing rice cultivation with sprinkle irrigation (SI), intermittent flooding (IF), and CF to increase irrigation and water use efficiencies. In 2011-2012, the predominant soil was typic Natraqualf (Nat), highly compacted, and in 2012-2013 it was Orthent Abruptic (OrtAb), with good drainage. The rice variety used was lowland, Puitá INTA CL. 20% of the fertilizer with N (2011-2012) was applied at sowing and the rest at tillering stage, according to the farmers\' usual management (traditional fertilization T) and an alternative management, thus resulting in partial fertilization (PF). In 2012- 2013, different doses of N were evaluated: T0, no fertilizer; T1 and T2, with 20 and 40% of the total N requirement, respectively. In 2011-2012, the statistical design consisted of split plots, while in 2012-2013 the design was a factorial one. In CF ponded water was maintained at a constant height of 6-8 cm during the whole cycle, whereas in IF Nat was always saturated or with -10 kPa in the case of OrtAb. In SI treatments, -25 kPa was used as control in Nat, changing to -10 kPa in OrtAb. A water balance (WB) was made, determining, among other components, gross irrigation depth (GId), ETa, and deep percolation arising from irrigation (DPir). Phenology was observed, and growth rates and leaf area index were evaluated. Yields (Y, 14%), its components, and the concentrations of nitrogen in plant tissues were determined at harvest time. The efficiencies of irrigation, water use, and water footprint were determined. In 2011-2012, Y was similar in CF and IF managements (average of 9.8 Mg ha-1), with a 24% reduction in SI due to strong water stress. Nat had a percolation of 2.8 mm day-1, thus GId and DPir in IF and CF managements were very similar -- 6,300 and 1,540 m3 ha-1, respectively. In 2012-2013, Y was similar in all water managements (average of 10 Mg ha-1), with a significant response to fertilization rates. The percolation of OrtAb tripled that of Nat, so GId and DPir in CF, IF, and SI systems had significant differences: 11,600, 9,120, and 5,320 m3 ha-1 for GId; and 8,580, 6,190, and 1,980 m3 ha-1 for DPir. The aboveground dry weight had a contrasting behavior, with a sigmoidal growth in 2011-2012 and a linear growth in 2012-2013. The water footprint of rice production in San Javier was 261.7 Mm3 year-1 -- blue, green, and gray water representing 52, 41, and 7%, respectively. IF management was the most versatile, being a promising technique to be used in the field, while SI can be used in soils with good drainage. In these soils, splitting fertilization would be more appropriate.

Introdução: A produção de alimentos é o setor que exerce maior Pegada Hídrica (PH), definida como o volume de água doce usado durante a produção e o consumo de bens e serviços. Os padrões alimentares contemporâneos vêm sofrendo mudanças em função das transições demográfica, epidemiológica e nutricional. Além disso, a primeira década do século XXI no Brasil foi marcada por políticas de proteção social que culminaram em redução da pobreza e da desigualdade. É necessário compreender como essas transformações repercutiram na demanda de água necessária para sustentar os novos padrões alimentares da população brasileira. Objetivo: Analisar a evolução da associação entre os padrões alimentares (PA) brasileiros e a PH associada à produção dos alimentos adquiridos nos domicílios brasileiros entre os anos 2003 e 2009. Métodos: Estudo transversal com dados de aquisição domiciliar de alimentos, disponibilizados pela Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares nos anos de 2002-2003 e 2008-2009. Os alimentos adquiridos foram compatibilizados com dados de PH de produtos. A PH média per capita foi descrita segundo grupos de alimentos, macrorregião, área e quintos de renda per capita. Os PA foram estimados para os setores censitários por análise de componentes principais. As variações observadas entre os dois anos do inquérito foram testadas com o teste t de Student para médias independentes, com nível de significância de 5 por cento . Os efeitos dos padrões alimentares sobre a PH e seus componentes foram estimados por regressão linear multivariada. Resultados: A PH média associada à produção dos alimentos adquiridos nos domicílios brasileiros foi de 2.650 m³ por ano per capita (EP ± 37,3 m³ por ano per capita), em 2003 e 2.446 m³ por ano per capita (EP ± 37,3 m³ por ano per capita) em 2009. Cerca de 91,4 por cento desses valores corresponderam ao componente verde, 4,7 por cento ao azul e 3,9 por cento ao cinza. Todas as regiões apresentaram redução da PH per capita em 2009, mas revelaram-se significativas apenas nas regiões NE e SE. Observou-se tendência linear de aumento da PH conforme incremento da renda. Foram identificados 6 PA, diferenciados quanto ao tipo de fonte proteica, sendo o PA1 predominante em carnes vermelhas e processadas, o PA2 em leite e ovos, o PA3 em peixes e oleaginosas, o PA4 em cereais e leguminosas, o PA5 em peixes e produtos processados, e o PA6 em peixes, análogos proteicos à base de soja e outras fontes vegetais de proteínas. Os padrões PA1 e PA6 apresentaram tendência de aumento em 2009, mas o PA1 apresentou impacto três vezes superior à PH que o PA6. O PA6 foi apontado como um padrão mais sustentável, em consonância com as recomendações da literatura e dos guias alimentares contemporâneos. Conclusões: As transformações socioeconômicas na primeira década do século XXI refletiram em mudanças nos padrões alimentares da população, que impactaram a PH. Sugere-se a necessidade de intervenções que considerem tanto as variantes socioeconômicas, como o consumo alimentar adequado, saudável e sustentável. / Introduction: Food production is the sector that exerts the major Water Footprint (WF), defined as the volume of freshwater resources used for production and consumption of goods and services. Contemporary eating patterns have changed in face of demographic, epidemiological, and nutritional transitions. In addition, in Brazil, the first decade of XXI century was marked by social protection policies that culminated in poverty reduction and inequality attenuation. It is necessary to understand how these changes may have affected the water demand required to sustain the new dietary patterns of the population. Aim: To examine the association between Brazilian dietary patterns (DP) and the WF associated to the production of the food products purchased in Brazilian households between 2003 and 2009. Methods: Cross-sectional study with household food purchase data provided by the Household Budget Surveys for the years 2002-2003 and 2008-2009. The purchased foods were matched with WF data. The average per capita WF was described into food groups, macro-region, area and level of income. The DP were estimated for the censitary sectors by principal component analysis. The differences observed between the two surveys were tested with the t Student test for independent means, with a significance level of 0.05. The effects of dietary patterns on WF and components were estimated by multivariate linear regression. Results: The average water footprint, associated with the production of foods purchased in Brazilian households, was 2,650 m³ per year per capita (EP ± 37.3 m³ per year per capita) in 2003 and 2,446 m³ per year per capita (EP ± 37.3 m³ per year per capita) in 2009. Approximately 91.4 per cent of these values corresponded to the green component, 4.7 per cent to the blue component and 3.9 per cent to the gray component. All regions showed a reduction in WF in 2009, but this was significant only in the Northeast and Southeast regions. It was observed a positive linear trend between WF and income. Six DP were identified and characterized by the type of protein source: DP1 by red and processed meat, DP2 by milk and eggs, DP3 by fish and oilseeds, DP4 by cereals and legumes, DP5 by fish and processed foods and DP6 by fish, soy-based meat analogues and other vegetable sources of protein. The DP1 and DP6 patterns showed an upward trend in 2009, but the impact of PA1 on WF was three times higher than of PA6. The PA6 was suggested as a more sustainable pattern, in agreement with the literature and with the contemporary food guides recommendations. Conclusions: Socioeconomic changes in the first decade of this century reflected in modifications concerning the dietary patterns of the population, which affected the WF. Interventions that consider both the socioeconomic variants and healthy and sustainable food consumption are necessary.

Maintenir la qualité des ressources en eau est l'un des défis majeurs auxquels la société d’aujourd’hui doit faire face. Il est donc primordial que ce critère soit intégré correctement dans les méthodes d’analyse d’impacts environnementaux, tel que l’Analyse du Cycle de Vie (ACV). Cependant, l’estimation de la qualité de l’eau et la manière dont cette information est utilisée dans les modèles d’évaluation d’impacts soulève un certain nombre de challenges méthodologiques, d’où la problématique de recherche : « Comment considérer la qualité de l’eau dans l’évaluation des impacts de l’utilisation de l’eau en ACV, de l’inventaire aux Aires de Protection ? ». Ce travail de thèse propose dans un premier temps une étude approfondie du rôle et de la nécessité de l’information « qualité de l’eau » dans l’évaluation des impacts de plusieurs type d’utilisation d’eau (usage consommatif, dégradatif et amélioration de la qualité). Cette étude s’applique aux différentes chaines de causalité de manière mécanistique, jusqu’aux trois Aires de Protection (AoP) santé humaine, qualité des écosystèmes et ressources naturelles. Afin d’améliorer la compréhension et la considération des impacts de l’utilisation de l’eau sur l’AoP ressources naturelles, un cadre théorique consensuel élaboré en collaboration avec WULCA (le groupe Water Use in LCA, de l’UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative) est défini. Ce cadre fournit une base solide pour l’élaboration cohérente de méthodes d’analyse d’impacts, permettant d’évaluer la diminution irréversible de la disponibilité physique de l'eau douce et/ou de son degré d'utilisabilité pour les générations futures. La thèse se conclut par le développement d’un modèle de caractérisation d’impacts de la dégradation des ressources en eau causée par des émissions. Des facteurs de caractérisation sont calculés pour cinq métaux, au niveau midpoint. L’application de ces indicateurs permet d’améliorer l’interprétabilité des résultats concernant les défis futurs liés aux ressources en eau ainsi que les résultats des impacts sur la santé humaine liés aux problèmes de qualité d’eau / Maintaining the quality of water resources is one of the major challenges society faces today. It is therefore essential that this criterion be properly integrated into environmental impact assessment methods, such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). However, the estimation of water quality and how this information is used in impact assessment models raises a number of methodological challenges; hence, the general research question is “How to consider water quality in water use impact assessment in LCA, from inventory to Areas of Protection?” This thesis first provides a detailed study about the role and necessity of "water quality" information in assessing impacts of different types of water use (consumptive and degradative use, as well as quality improvement). This study applies to the different cause-effect chains in a mechanistic way, in view of the three Areas of Protection (AoP) human health, ecosystem quality and natural resources. In order to improve the understanding and consideration of the water use impacts on the AoP natural resources, a consensual framework, developed jointly with WULCA (Water Use in LCA group of the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative), is presented. This framework provides a solid basis for the consistent development of impact characterization models to assess the irreversible reduction in physical availability of freshwater and its quality-based usability for future generations. The thesis ends with the development of a characterization model for water resource degradation impacts caused by emissions. Characterization factors are calculated for five metals at the midpoint level. The application of these indicators improves the interpretability of LCA results regarding future water resource challenges and water-quality related impacts on human health.

Depuis quelques dizaines d’années, un intérêt croissant s’est développé pour la protection des espèces et la compréhension des mécanismes qui les conduisent à l’extinction. Actuellement, les causes d’extinction sont pour la grande majorité d’origine anthropique, mais un certain nombre de facteurs intrinsèques, propres à chaque espèce, peuvent interagir avec ces pressions anthropiques, pour aboutir au risque d’extinction. De nombreuses études ont mis en évidence l’impact des traits d’histoires de vie et des caractéristiques écologiques dans la vulnérabilité des espèces à l’extinction, mais très peu se sont penchées sur le rôle du comportement. Or, de par leur nature, tout un ensemble de comportements pourraient constituer des facteurs de vulnérabilité intrinsèques chez les espèces, que ce soit au niveau du risque d’extinction, ou au niveau des principales pressions anthropiques qui existent actuellement. Le but de cette thèse est de déterminer l’impact des caractéristiques du système social et de l’intensité de la sélection sexuelle dans la vulnérabilité des espèces de Primates i) aux principales pressions anthropiques (i.e. chasse, exploitation forestière et agriculture), à un niveau local, en portant une attention spécial au rôle d’infanticide dans la vulnérabilité à la chasse et ii) au risque d’extinction tel que décrit par l’UICN, au niveau global. Ce dernier point nous a amenés à analyser plus spécifiquement l’impact de l’hétérogénéité de l’empreinte humaine dans le risque d’extinction. Toutes nos études reposent sur une approche d’analyses comparatives. Nos différents travaux ont permis de mettre en évidence des effets du comportement à aux différentes échelles spatiales et pour les deux niveaux de vulnérabilité, mais avec des différences dans la nature des variables comportementales impliquées. Nous avons identifié des effets de la taille moyenne des groupes et du système socio-reproducteur dans la vulnérabilité à l’exploitation forestière, mais pas pour les autres menaces testées. De plus, ces effets ont été retrouvés au niveau du risque d’extinction, mais dans des sens différents. Ainsi, les mécanismes impliqués dans la vulnérabilité des espèces diffèrent selon le type de vulnérabilité étudié, faisant intervenir différents effets Allee. / Improving species protection and better understanding the mechanisms leading to population decline and ultime extinction has become a major research area over the last decades. Nowadays, the causes of extinction are mostly anthropogenic, but some intrinsic factors, specific to each species, can interact with these anthropogenic pressures to determine the extinction risk. Many studies have highlighted the impact of life history traits and ecological characteristics on species vulnerability to extinction, but very few have investigated the role of behaviour. Because of the mechanisms they imply, several behaviours could constitute intrinsic factors of vulnerability among species, at the level of extinction risk, or concerning the main anthropogenic pressures threatening species. The aim of this thesis is to determine the impact of the social system and sexual selection on primate vulnerability i) to the main anthropogenic threats (i.e. hunting, logging and agriculture) and, particularly, the role of infanticide on their vulnerability to hunting, and ii) to the extinction risk as described by the IUCN conservation status. This point has lead us to examine also the impact of human footprint heterogeneity on extinction risk. All our studies are based on a comparative analysis approach. Our different works highlighted several impacts of behavioural variables at the two spatial scales and for the two levels of vulnerability, but with differences in the nature of the behavioural variables. We identified significant effects of the average group size and the socio-reproductive system in species vulnerability to logging, but not in species vulnerability to the other threats. Moreover, these effects have also been found at the level of the extinction risk, but in different ways. Thus, the mechanisms implicated in the vulnerability are different according to the type of vulnerability, and rely on several Allee effects.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-19T18:20:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Alexsandra Maura Costa Bernal Martin.pdf: 1295409 bytes, checksum: 477670657eea05b9fd0013060437625e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-09-11 / The 7,4 billion hectares of lands ecologically productive available for human use are decreasing in an abrupt way, since last century and, more intensely, in the last decades, mainly due to the significant increase of the world human population and the consumption produced by that. From this fact, the concept of sustainability began to be part of the scientific economic, social and political world agendas. Indicators and indexes of environmental sustainability were created with the objective of measuring the production and the consumption of the essential natural elements to life, to follow the loss/degradation levels to minimize, to replace or to optimize their use. The Ecological Footprint it is one of those sustainability indexes created in 1996, recognized as analytic and educational, that measures how much of the land and sea areas are necessary to reach the consumption of products and services of a population, of a process or of an individual. The results are compared with the available bioproductive area and expressed in balance terms or ecological deficit. The cities are recognized as playing a decisive part in the development of the civilization as something between 58 and 61% of the world population live in cities. São Luís is included in the dynamic and historical processes that happened in Brazil and in the world, with an average annual growth higher than Brazil´s and the Northeast region in the period of 1991-2000. The major objective of this study is to calculate the Ecological Footprint Index of the municipal district of São Luís in the years 2000 and 2004, evaluating the biophysical sustainability of that urban socio-ecosystem through the analysis of the consumption of fuel, water, electricity, food, wood, emissions of CO2, green house effect gas, and the productive natural areas necessary to sustain and to assimilate the generated solid residues. Moreover, to compare the result obtained with the one of other municipal districts of Brazil where this index was already established, to estimate the municipal contribution to the global environmental changes and to contribute to improve the planning, management and the generation of policies. Additionally, the analysis of CO2 captured by a water body (Bacanga) was made and the index of environmental preservation of the area was calculated. As the result, São Luís showed an ecological deficit, and needs an area about 20 times larger than the available to maintain its activities. The element that more contributed to that result was the fuel consumption and the one that less influenced was the water. Only as the consequence of fuel consumption, about 2.087.179.546 tons of CO2 were emitted to the atmosphere in the years of the study. Therefore, facing the population growth that causes decrease of the areas of environmental protection that provide ecological services of life maintenance, it is necessary that public decision makers and each São Luis citizen, review their consumption habits, look for the use of ecologically correct technologies and the conservation of the ecosystems. / Os 7,4 bilhões de hectares de terras ecologicamente produtivas disponíveis para o uso humano vêm diminuindo de forma abrupta, desde o século passado e, mais intensamente, nas últimas décadas, devido principalmente, ao aumento significativo da população humana mundial e do consumo produzido por esta. Diante dessa constatação, o conceito de sustentabilidade passou a fazer parte das agendas científicas, econômicas, sociais e políticas mundiais, donde indicadores e índices ambientais e de sustentabilidade foram criados com o objetivo de mensurar a produção e o consumo dos elementos naturais essenciais à vida, acompanhar seus níveis de perda/degradação para minimizar, substituir ou otimizar sua utilização. A Pegada Ecológica (WACKERNAGEL & REES, 1996) é um desses índices de sustentabilidade criado em 1996, reconhecido como analítico e educacional, que mede quanto de área de terra e mar são necessários para atender o consumo de produtos e serviços de uma população, de um processo ou de um individuo. Seus resultados são comparados com a área bioprodutiva disponível e expressam-se em termos de saldo ou déficit ecológico. As cidades são reconhecidas como desempenhando papel decisivo no desenvolvimento da civilização, inclusive porque mais da metade da população mundial, algo entre 58 e 61%, vive nelas. São Luís enquadra-se nos processos dinâmicos e históricos ocorridos no Brasil e no mundo, com uma taxa média de crescimento anual maior que a do Brasil e que a do Nordeste para o período de 1991-2000. O objetivo maior deste trabalho é estabelecer o índice de sustentabilidade Pegada Ecológica do município de São Luís nos anos 2000 e 2004, avaliando a sustentabilidade biofísica desse socioecossistema urbano através da análise do consumo de combustíveis, água, eletricidade, alimentos, madeira, da determinação das emissões de CO2, gás de efeito estufa, e das áreas naturais produtivas necessárias para sustentar e para assimilar os resíduos sólidos gerados. Além disso, busca comparar o resultado obtido com os de outros municípios do Brasil onde este índice já foi estabelecido, estimar a contribuição municipal às mudanças ambientais globais e contribuir para melhorar o planejamento, manejo e a geração de políticas. Foram acrescidas, a titulo de maior conhecimento sobre o socioecossistema, a análise do CO2 seqüestrado por um corpo d água (rio Bacanga) e o índice de preservação ambiental da área. Como resultado, São Luís apresenta-se em déficit ecológico, necessitando para manutenção de suas atividades de uma área cerca de 20 vezes maior que a disponível. O elemento que mais contribuiu para esse resultado foi o consumo de combustíveis e o que menos influenciou foi o de água. Foram emitidas, em decorrência apenas do consumo de combustíveis, cerca de 2.087.179,546 toneladas de CO2 para a atmosfera nos anos do estudo. Assim, diante do crescimento populacional, que provoca diminuição das áreas de proteção ambiental que prestam serviços ecológicos de manutenção da vida, faz-se necessário que os gestores públicos e cada cidadão ludovicense, revejam seus hábitos de consumo, primem pela utilização de tecnologias ambientalmente corretas e pela preservação dos ecossistemas.

Valuation draws heavily on the economic theory of demand. This tells us that users have preferences for water and are willing to pay different amounts for units of water put to different uses. Water should be allocated between these uses to the point that equalises the value of the last or 'marginal' unit. In other words, it is impossible to find a higher value for this marginal unit. Application of this principle of equi-marginal returns requires us to have some clarity about water values in competing uses. This is also important since water is rarely free to supply, and therefore suppliers need to charge a price that is in some sense equal to the supply cost and value to achieve full cost recovery. Even though inclusion of this economic rationale in the management of water resources has been a widely accepted principle, and is included in national and the EU policies, the actual practice does not fully reflect this endorsement. While many countries recognise the vital nature of water resources, few, if any, pursue a rigorous analysis of revealing the explicit value of water as a basis for determining whether water is actually being allocated to sectors in order to maximise its overall benefit to society. Aspiring to be the first Hydro Nation, maximising the social return from its water uses ought to be a policy objective in Scotland. This thesis constructs a portfolio of different water uses, estimating the approximate value for each and their current allocation in Scotland. This aims to stimulate an informed debate on actual allocation of water among different uses, relative values and trade-offs of these allocations in Scotland so that alternative allocation scenarios can also be discussed. I then focus on the valuation of water by manufacturing industries, the biggest consumptive use and a significant added value creator in Scotland. I investigate the factors that affect the valuation of water and the responsiveness to prices in manufacturing industries using a meta-analysis technique. These values are obviously not the same for each manufacturing sector due the nature of their use and value of their final output. Some sectors create premium value out of their use. The whisky industry stands out as a water-intensive and high value creating sector, as well as a vital contributor to the rural and overall Scottish economy. It is analysed here as the first case study using water footprint and marginal productivity analyses methods, both analyses highlighting the importance of quality and quantity of local water resources in Scotland and its value to the industry. The second case study is the livestock industry, which has been overlooked in the valuation of water use literature yet is significant for livelihoods in rural Scotland where reduced land capability limits agricultural production options. Following the portfolio of water uses, meta-analysis and case studies that analyse the current situation of value and allocation, I explore how the current situation can be improved through the application of tradability. Currently the main problem in Scotland is not the amount of water used or abstracted, but the pollution reaching water bodies as the result of run-off and leaching from agricultural fields. Therefore, the feasibility of trading water rights is more concerned with the permits to pollute rather than the rights to use. Using a linear optimisation I look into the potential of designing a payment for ecosystem services scheme based on tradability of water pollution in agricultural catchments that are affected by from diffuse pollution. The results indicate that trading schemes help reduce the cost of pollution to all users while creating additional income for farms. For constructing more precise pollution rights and robust schemes more research efforts are required.

Nesta dissertação buscamos aplicar o modelo das interações entre as atividades científicas e os valores de Hugh Lacey ao campo das pesquisas tecnocientíficas sobre o cimento, a fim de verificar suas principais teses. Dois tipos de abordagens foram adotadas: a análise interpretativa de episódios-chave do desenvolvimento científico e tecnológico do cimento à luz do modelo teórico de referência; e a análise interpretativa das iniciativas do setor, em termos de processos tecnológicos e de estratégias de pesquisa, para reduzir suas emissões de gás carbônico até 2050. As principais conclusões a que chegamos com essas abordagens são: o campo de pesquisas sobre cimentos tem elementos para corroborar o modelo laceyano, na medida em que é caracterizado por pesquisas tecnocientíficas sob estratégias descontextualizadoras, fecundas e úteis, em relações mutuamente reforçadoras com as perspectivas de valor do progresso tecnológico e do capital e mercado, que preservam a imparcialidade, mas que não asseguram nem a autonomia nem a neutralidade no campo; e as iniciativas do setor cimenteiro para reduzir suas emissões de CO2 baseiam-se na conjunção hierárquica das perspectivas de valor do progresso tecnológico, do capital e mercado, e da sustentabilidade, cujas pressuposições até o momento carecem de comprovação empírica. / In this dissertation we undertake the application of Hugh Laceys model of interactions between values and scientific activities to the field of cement techno-scientific research with the purpose of verifying its basic theses. Two approaches are followed: an interpretative analysis of the key episodes of the scientific and technological development of cements in the light of the model; and an interpretative analysis of the cement sector initiatives, in terms of technological processes and scientific strategies, for reductions of CO2 emission up to 2050. The main conclusions are: the field holds elements for corroboration of the model as it is characterized for techno-scientific research based on materialist strategies, fruitful and useful, in mutual relationship with value perspectives of technological progress and of capital and market, that preserves imparciality but neither autonomy nor neutrality in the field; and the cement sector initiatives for CO2 mitigation are based on an hierarchical conjunction of value perspectives of technological progress, of capital and market, and of sustainability, whose presuppositions so far lacked empirical corroboration.

Resumo: Objetivo: O objetivo geral deste trabalho consiste em realizar um estudo comparativo dos impactos ambientais em sistemas intensivo, extensivo, orgânico da produção de bovinos de corte no Brasil Central a partir da ferramenta de Análise do Ciclo de Vida (ACV). Metodologia/Procedimentos de Pesquisa: A pesquisa classifica-se como de abordagem quantitativa, utilizando de ferramentas padronizadas, e baseada em cálculos mediante planilha eletrônica. Quanto à sua natureza pode ser descrita como de natureza aplicada, com objetivos definidos que remetem à pesquisa exploratória e descritiva. O procedimento aplicado foi de pesquisa de referencial bibliográfico e posterior aplicação em cenários prototípicos. A ACV segue as normas preconizadas pela ISO 14040 e os cálculos através das equações propostas, pelo IPCC, sendo posteriormente calculados em planilha eletrônica. Resultados e Discussões: Mensurar os impactos ambientais nos diferentes sistemas produtivos da bovinocultura: extensivo, intensivo e orgânico, quantificando os gases do GEE e uso da terra mediante os resultados alcançados, e verificar quais dos sistemas é o menos impactante ao meio ambiente, em termos de produtividade comparativamente. Implicações Gerenciais: Os resultados a serem obtidos com a pesquisa podem auxiliar na tomada de decisão no processo de escolha do sistema a ser escolhido levando em consideração o aspecto da gestão ambiental, e possíveis diretrizes e normas futuras com relação a leis ambientais que possam at... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Purpose: The general objective of this work is to perform a comparative study of environmental impacts in intensive, extensive, organic systems using the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) tool. Design/methodology: The research is classified as a quantitative approach, using standardized tools, and based on spreadsheet calculations. Its nature can be described as applied nature, with defined objectives that refer to the exploratory and descriptive research. The procedure applied was to search for bibliographic references and later to place them in prototypical scenarios. The ACV follows the standards recommended by ISO 14040 and the quantum application of the proposed formulas, by the IPCC, and are then calculated in a spreadsheet. Findings and Discussions: Measure the environmental impacts in the different productive systems of cattle breeding: extensive, intensive and organic, quantifying GHG and land use using the results achieved, and verify which of the systems is the least impacting the environment in terms of productivity comparatively. Management Implication: The results to be obtained with the research can help in decision to making in the process of choosing the system to be chosen taking into consideration the aspect of environmental management, and possible future guidelines and norms regarding environmental laws that can reach the sector. Conclusion and Research limitations: The organic production system of cattle results in a lower environmental impact considering the ca... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

This study aims to measure the effect of designed environmental education lectures that is based on general environmental problems on primary school students&rsquo / attitudes toward environment. The participants of this study obtained from a governmental school in Y&uuml / z&uuml / nc&uuml / Yil districts of Ankara and consists of 51 (18 fourth grade and 33 fifth grade) students. In the study that is held in 2006-2007 education year students implemented to environmental education lectures for one month. The lectures included the &ldquo / sustainable development&rdquo / and &ldquo / ecological footprint&rdquo / concept, as well as the general environmental problems, their reasons and recycling as solution for reducing environmental problems, and student-centered teaching methods such as discussion, role playing, cooperative learning and questioning were used during the lectures in addition to the traditional teaching method. The data concerning the effect of the lectures was obtained by the environmental attitude questionnaire implemented to the students before and after the treatment as pre-test and post-test. Independent sample t-test and paired sample t-test were conducted for data analysis and the result of the study indicated that environmental education lectures increased the environmental attitudes of the students.

Within the twenty&ndash / first century, nearly three billion people, half of total population of the world, live in cities. It is estimated that in the forthcoming twenty&ndash / five years, two billion more people will settle in urban lands. Essentially most of these devastating changes will occur in developing countries, both in terms of the total global urban population as well as increased percentage of the individual country&rsquo / s population living in urban areas. For many developing countries, the urban population is already large. Further increases in size and rates of growth will no doubt stress already impacted environments and living quality. All cities, however, are not impacting the ecology of the world similarly. On the one hand, developed cities have mostly cope with their environmental problems regarded as traditional / concern has focused to their impacts on ecosystems as well as those larger in scale. Cities in the developing world are more concerned with other issues. However, it is not only the development level of countries but the urban planning and development tendencies of their cities impacting the environment differently should be considered, which comprehensively shows us environmental performance of urban patterns. Environmental performance basically refers to the abilities and capabilities of urban patterns to mitigate their impacts on environment and ecology of the world and to cope with the negative of all. As an indicator of environmental performance of urban patterns, ecological footprints, its reasons and long term effects should be specified as inseparable part of urban development and inevitably ecological footprints of different urban patterns and their effects on climate change should be concerned while taking planning and development decisions for urban areas. The basic purpose of the thesis is to specify the environmental performance of different urban patterns in terms of their ecological footprints through defining the relationship between implications of urban patterns and their contributions to the ecological footprint.