<p>In a world that is moving faster and faster, a company’s ability to align to market changes is becoming a major competitive factor. Forecasting enables companies to predict what lies ahead, e.g. trend shifts or market turns, and makes it possible to plan for it. But looking into the future is never an easy task.</p><p>“Prediction is very difficult, especially if it’s about the future.” (Niels Bohr, 1885-1962)</p><p>However, progress in the field of forecasting has shown that it is possible for companies to improve on forecasting practices. This master thesis looks at the sales forecasting practices in MNCs primarily operating in emerging and developing countries. We examine the whole process of sales forecasting, also known as forecasting management, in order to develop a comprehensive model for forecasting in this type of companies. The research is based on a single case study, which is then later generalized into broader conclusions.</p><p>The conclusion of this master thesis is that forecasting is a four-step exercise. The four stages we have identified are: Knowledge creation, knowledge transformation, knowledge use and feedback. In the course of these four stages a company’s sales forecast is developed, changed and used. By understanding how each stage works and what to focus on, companies will be able to improve their forecasting practices.</p>

In a world that is moving faster and faster, a company’s ability to align to market changes is becoming a major competitive factor. Forecasting enables companies to predict what lies ahead, e.g. trend shifts or market turns, and makes it possible to plan for it. But looking into the future is never an easy task. “Prediction is very difficult, especially if it’s about the future.” (Niels Bohr, 1885-1962) However, progress in the field of forecasting has shown that it is possible for companies to improve on forecasting practices. This master thesis looks at the sales forecasting practices in MNCs primarily operating in emerging and developing countries. We examine the whole process of sales forecasting, also known as forecasting management, in order to develop a comprehensive model for forecasting in this type of companies. The research is based on a single case study, which is then later generalized into broader conclusions. The conclusion of this master thesis is that forecasting is a four-step exercise. The four stages we have identified are: Knowledge creation, knowledge transformation, knowledge use and feedback. In the course of these four stages a company’s sales forecast is developed, changed and used. By understanding how each stage works and what to focus on, companies will be able to improve their forecasting practices.

No description available.

Thesis (PhD (Business Management))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / Please refer to full text to view abstract.

This dissertation comprises of three original contributions to empirical forecasting research. Chapter 1 introduces the dissertation. Chapter 2 contributes to the literature on hierarchical time series (HTS) modelling by proposing a disaggregated forecasting system for both inflation rate and its volatility. Using monthly data that underlies the Retail Prices Index for the UK, we analyse the dynamics of the inflation process. We examine patterns in the time-varying covariation among product-level inflation rates that aggregate up to industry-level inflation rates that in turn aggregate up to the overall inflation rate. The aggregate inflation volatility closely tracks the time path of this covariation, which is seen to be driven primarily by the variances of common shocks shared by all products, and by the covariances between idiosyncratic product-level shocks. We formulate a forecasting system that comprises of models for mean inflation rate and its variance, and exploit the index structure of the aggregate inflation rate using the HTS framework. Using a dynamic model selection approach to forecasting, we obtain forecasts that are between 9 and 155 % more accurate than a SARIMA-GARCH(1,1) for the aggregate inflation volatility. Chapter 3 is on improving forecasts using forecast combinations. The paper documents the software implementation of the open source R package for forecast combination that we coded and published on the official R package depository, CRAN. The GeomComb package is the only R package that covers a wide range of different popular forecast combination methods. We implement techniques from 3 broad categories: (a) simple non-parametric methods, (b) regression-based methods, and (c) geometric (eigenvector) methods, allowing for static or dynamic estimation of each approach. Using S3 classes/methods in R, the package provides a user-friendly environment for applied forecasting, implementing solutions for typical issues related to forecast combination (multicollinearity, missing values, etc.), criterion-based optimisation for several parametric methods, and post-fit functions to rationalise and visualise estimation results. The package has been listed in the official R Task Views for Time Series Analysis and for Official Statistics. The brief empirical application in the paper illustrates the package’s functionality by estimating forecast combination techniques for monthly UK electricity supply. Chapter 4 introduces HTS forecasting and forecast combination to a healthcare staffing context. A slowdown of healthcare budget growth in the UK that does not keep pace with growth of demand for hospital services made efficient cost planning increasingly crucial for hospitals, in particular for staff which accounts for more than half of hospitals’ expenses. This is facilitated by accurate forecasts of patient census and churn. Using a dataset of more than 3 million observations from a large UK hospital, we show how HTS forecasting can improve forecast accuracy by using information at different levels of the hospital hierarchy (aggregate, emergency/electives, divisions, specialties), compared to the naïve benchmark: the seasonal random walk model applied to the aggregate. We show that forecast combination can improve accuracy even more in some cases, and leads to lower forecast error variance (decreasing forecasting risk). We propose a comprehensive parametric approach to use forecasts in a nurse staffing model that has the aim of minimising cost while satisfying that the care requirements (e.g. nurse hours per patient day thresholds) are met.

A previsão e emissão de alertas antecipados constituem um dos principais elementos na prevenção dos impactos ocasionados por eventos de cheias. Uma das formas utilizadas para se obter uma ampliação do horizonte de previsão é através do uso da modelagem chuva-vazão associada à previsão de precipitação, tipicamente derivada de modelos meteorológicos. A precipitação, no entanto, é uma das variáveis que impõe maior dificuldade na previsão meteorológica, sendo considerada uma das principais fontes de incerteza nos resultados da previsão de cheias. A previsão por conjunto é uma técnica originalmente desenvolvida nas ciências atmosféricas e procura explorar as incertezas associadas às condições iniciais e/ou deficiências na estrutura dos modelos meteorológicos com intuito de melhorar sua previsibilidade. A partir de diferentes modelos meteorológicos ou de diferentes condições iniciais de um único modelo, são gerados um conjunto de previsões que representam possíveis trajetórias dos processos atmosféricos ao longo do horizonte de previsão. Pesquisas recentes, principalmente na Europa e Estados Unidos, têm mostrado resultados promissores do acoplamento de previsões meteorológicas por conjunto à modelos hidrológicos para realizar previsões de cheia. Essa pesquisa trata da avaliação do benefício da previsão de cheias por conjunto em curto prazo, em uma bacia de médio porte, utilizando dados e de ferramentas para previsão de vazões disponíveis em modo operacional no Brasil. Como estudo de caso foi utilizada a bacia do Rio Paraopeba (12.150km²), de clima tipicamente tropical, localizada na região sudeste do Brasil. A metodologia proposta para geração das previsões hidrológicas utilizou o modelo hidrológico MGB-IPH alimentado por um conjunto previsões de precipitação de diferentes modelos, com diferentes condições iniciais e parametrizações, dando origem a distintos cenários de previsão de vazões. Como parâmetro de referência na avaliação do desempenho das previsões por conjunto foi utilizada uma previsão hidrológica determinística única, baseada em uma previsão de precipitação obtida da combinação ótima de saídas de diversos modelos meteorológicos. As previsões foram realizadas retrospectivamente no período entre ago/2008 e mai/2011, sendo analisadas durante o período chuvoso dos anos hidrológicos (out-abr). Os resultados das previsões de cheia por conjunto foram avaliados através de uma representação determinística, considerando a média dos membros do conjunto, assim como através de uma representação probabilística, considerando todos os membros, através de medidas de desempenho específicas para esse fim. Na avaliação determinística, a média do conjunto hidrológico apresentou resultados similares aos obtido com a previsão determinística de referência, embora tenha apresentado benefício significativo em relação à maior parte dos membros do conjunto. A avaliação das previsões de cheia por conjunto, por sua vez, mostrou a existência de uma superestimativa e de um subespalhamento dos membros em relação às observações, sobretudo nos primeiros intervalos de tempo da previsão. Na comparação dos resultados das previsões de eventos do tipo dicótomos, que consideram a superação ou não de vazões limites de alerta, o 9º decil das previsões por conjunto mostrou superioridade em relação à previsão determinística de referência e mesmo a média do conjunto, sendo possível obter, na maior parte dos casos analisados, um aumento significativo na proporção de eventos corretamente previstos mantendo as taxas de alarmes falsos em níveis reduzidos. Esse benefício foi, de modo geral, maior para maiores antecedências e vazões limites, situações mais importantes num contexto de prevenção de cheias. Os resultados mostraram ainda que, em média, uma diminuição do número de membros do conjunto diminui seu desempenho nas previsões. / The forecasting and issuing of early warnings represent a key element to prevent the impacts of flood events. An alternative to extend forecasting horizon is the use of rainfall-runoff modeling coupled with precipitation forecasts derived from numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. However, NWP models have difficulty to accurately predict precipitation due to the extremely sensitivity of the initial conditions. Therefore, this variable represents one of the major sources of uncertainties in flood forecasting. A probabilistic or ensemble forecasting approach was originally developed in the atmospheric sciences and then applied to other research areas. This procedure explores the uncertainties related to initial conditions and deficiencies in the structure of NWP models intending to improve its predictability. Using different NWP models or different initial conditions of a single model, an ensemble forecast showing possible trajectories of atmospheric processes over the forecast horizon are produced. Recent studies developed in Europe and the United States have shown promising results in flood forecasting using hydrological models fed by NWP ensemble outputs. The present research assess the performance of short term ensemble flood forecasting in a medium size tropical basin, based on data and streamflow forecasting tools available in operational mode in Brazil. The Paraopeba River basin (12,150 km²), located in the upper portion of the São Francisco River basin, in Southeastern Brazil, was selected as a case study. The proposed methodology used the MGB-IPH hydrological coupled to an ensemble of precipitation forecasts generated by several models with different initial conditions and parameterizations. The results are several scenarios of streamflow forecasts. A single deterministic streamflow forecast, based on a quantitative precipitation forecast derived from the optimal combination of several outputs of NWP models, was used as a reference to assess the performance of the streamflow ensemble forecasts. The streamflow forecasts were performed between aug/2008 and may/2011 and were analyzed during the rainy seasons (austral summer). The results from the ensemble flood forecasting were assessed by deterministic and probabilistic performance measures, with the ensemble mean being used by the former, and specific assessment measure by the later. Based on the deterministic assessment, the ensemble mean showed similar results to those obtained by the deterministic reference forecast, although showing better performance over most of the ensemble members. Based on the probabilistic performance measures, however, results showed the existence of an ensemble overforecasting and underspread of the members in regard to observed values, especially during the first lead times. The results for predictions of dichotomous events, which mean exceeding or not flood warning thresholds, showed that the 9th decile of the ensemble over performed the deterministic forecast and even the ensemble mean. In most cases, it was observed an increase in the proportion of correctly forecasted events while keeping false alarm rates at low levels. This benefit was generally higher for higher flow thresholds and for longer lead times, which are the most important situations for flood mitigation. The results show, also, that, in average, a reduction in the number of ensemble members decreases the performance of ensemble flood forecasts.

The cycle regression analysis algorithm is the most recent addition to a group of techniques developed to detect "hidden periodicities." This dissertation investigates four major aspects of the algorithm. The objectives of this research are 1. To develop an objective method of obtaining an initial estimate of the cycle period? the present procedure of obtaining this estimate involves considerable subjective judgment; 2. To validate the algorithm's success in extracting cycles from multi-cylical data; 3. To determine if a consistent relationship exists among the smallest amplitude, the error standard deviation, and the number of replications of a cycle contained in the data; 4. To investigate the behavior of the algorithm in the predictions of major drops.

A previsão e emissão de alertas antecipados constituem um dos principais elementos na prevenção dos impactos ocasionados por eventos de cheias. Uma das formas utilizadas para se obter uma ampliação do horizonte de previsão é através do uso da modelagem chuva-vazão associada à previsão de precipitação, tipicamente derivada de modelos meteorológicos. A precipitação, no entanto, é uma das variáveis que impõe maior dificuldade na previsão meteorológica, sendo considerada uma das principais fontes de incerteza nos resultados da previsão de cheias. A previsão por conjunto é uma técnica originalmente desenvolvida nas ciências atmosféricas e procura explorar as incertezas associadas às condições iniciais e/ou deficiências na estrutura dos modelos meteorológicos com intuito de melhorar sua previsibilidade. A partir de diferentes modelos meteorológicos ou de diferentes condições iniciais de um único modelo, são gerados um conjunto de previsões que representam possíveis trajetórias dos processos atmosféricos ao longo do horizonte de previsão. Pesquisas recentes, principalmente na Europa e Estados Unidos, têm mostrado resultados promissores do acoplamento de previsões meteorológicas por conjunto à modelos hidrológicos para realizar previsões de cheia. Essa pesquisa trata da avaliação do benefício da previsão de cheias por conjunto em curto prazo, em uma bacia de médio porte, utilizando dados e de ferramentas para previsão de vazões disponíveis em modo operacional no Brasil. Como estudo de caso foi utilizada a bacia do Rio Paraopeba (12.150km²), de clima tipicamente tropical, localizada na região sudeste do Brasil. A metodologia proposta para geração das previsões hidrológicas utilizou o modelo hidrológico MGB-IPH alimentado por um conjunto previsões de precipitação de diferentes modelos, com diferentes condições iniciais e parametrizações, dando origem a distintos cenários de previsão de vazões. Como parâmetro de referência na avaliação do desempenho das previsões por conjunto foi utilizada uma previsão hidrológica determinística única, baseada em uma previsão de precipitação obtida da combinação ótima de saídas de diversos modelos meteorológicos. As previsões foram realizadas retrospectivamente no período entre ago/2008 e mai/2011, sendo analisadas durante o período chuvoso dos anos hidrológicos (out-abr). Os resultados das previsões de cheia por conjunto foram avaliados através de uma representação determinística, considerando a média dos membros do conjunto, assim como através de uma representação probabilística, considerando todos os membros, através de medidas de desempenho específicas para esse fim. Na avaliação determinística, a média do conjunto hidrológico apresentou resultados similares aos obtido com a previsão determinística de referência, embora tenha apresentado benefício significativo em relação à maior parte dos membros do conjunto. A avaliação das previsões de cheia por conjunto, por sua vez, mostrou a existência de uma superestimativa e de um subespalhamento dos membros em relação às observações, sobretudo nos primeiros intervalos de tempo da previsão. Na comparação dos resultados das previsões de eventos do tipo dicótomos, que consideram a superação ou não de vazões limites de alerta, o 9º decil das previsões por conjunto mostrou superioridade em relação à previsão determinística de referência e mesmo a média do conjunto, sendo possível obter, na maior parte dos casos analisados, um aumento significativo na proporção de eventos corretamente previstos mantendo as taxas de alarmes falsos em níveis reduzidos. Esse benefício foi, de modo geral, maior para maiores antecedências e vazões limites, situações mais importantes num contexto de prevenção de cheias. Os resultados mostraram ainda que, em média, uma diminuição do número de membros do conjunto diminui seu desempenho nas previsões. / The forecasting and issuing of early warnings represent a key element to prevent the impacts of flood events. An alternative to extend forecasting horizon is the use of rainfall-runoff modeling coupled with precipitation forecasts derived from numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. However, NWP models have difficulty to accurately predict precipitation due to the extremely sensitivity of the initial conditions. Therefore, this variable represents one of the major sources of uncertainties in flood forecasting. A probabilistic or ensemble forecasting approach was originally developed in the atmospheric sciences and then applied to other research areas. This procedure explores the uncertainties related to initial conditions and deficiencies in the structure of NWP models intending to improve its predictability. Using different NWP models or different initial conditions of a single model, an ensemble forecast showing possible trajectories of atmospheric processes over the forecast horizon are produced. Recent studies developed in Europe and the United States have shown promising results in flood forecasting using hydrological models fed by NWP ensemble outputs. The present research assess the performance of short term ensemble flood forecasting in a medium size tropical basin, based on data and streamflow forecasting tools available in operational mode in Brazil. The Paraopeba River basin (12,150 km²), located in the upper portion of the São Francisco River basin, in Southeastern Brazil, was selected as a case study. The proposed methodology used the MGB-IPH hydrological coupled to an ensemble of precipitation forecasts generated by several models with different initial conditions and parameterizations. The results are several scenarios of streamflow forecasts. A single deterministic streamflow forecast, based on a quantitative precipitation forecast derived from the optimal combination of several outputs of NWP models, was used as a reference to assess the performance of the streamflow ensemble forecasts. The streamflow forecasts were performed between aug/2008 and may/2011 and were analyzed during the rainy seasons (austral summer). The results from the ensemble flood forecasting were assessed by deterministic and probabilistic performance measures, with the ensemble mean being used by the former, and specific assessment measure by the later. Based on the deterministic assessment, the ensemble mean showed similar results to those obtained by the deterministic reference forecast, although showing better performance over most of the ensemble members. Based on the probabilistic performance measures, however, results showed the existence of an ensemble overforecasting and underspread of the members in regard to observed values, especially during the first lead times. The results for predictions of dichotomous events, which mean exceeding or not flood warning thresholds, showed that the 9th decile of the ensemble over performed the deterministic forecast and even the ensemble mean. In most cases, it was observed an increase in the proportion of correctly forecasted events while keeping false alarm rates at low levels. This benefit was generally higher for higher flow thresholds and for longer lead times, which are the most important situations for flood mitigation. The results show, also, that, in average, a reduction in the number of ensemble members decreases the performance of ensemble flood forecasts.

A previsão e emissão de alertas antecipados constituem um dos principais elementos na prevenção dos impactos ocasionados por eventos de cheias. Uma das formas utilizadas para se obter uma ampliação do horizonte de previsão é através do uso da modelagem chuva-vazão associada à previsão de precipitação, tipicamente derivada de modelos meteorológicos. A precipitação, no entanto, é uma das variáveis que impõe maior dificuldade na previsão meteorológica, sendo considerada uma das principais fontes de incerteza nos resultados da previsão de cheias. A previsão por conjunto é uma técnica originalmente desenvolvida nas ciências atmosféricas e procura explorar as incertezas associadas às condições iniciais e/ou deficiências na estrutura dos modelos meteorológicos com intuito de melhorar sua previsibilidade. A partir de diferentes modelos meteorológicos ou de diferentes condições iniciais de um único modelo, são gerados um conjunto de previsões que representam possíveis trajetórias dos processos atmosféricos ao longo do horizonte de previsão. Pesquisas recentes, principalmente na Europa e Estados Unidos, têm mostrado resultados promissores do acoplamento de previsões meteorológicas por conjunto à modelos hidrológicos para realizar previsões de cheia. Essa pesquisa trata da avaliação do benefício da previsão de cheias por conjunto em curto prazo, em uma bacia de médio porte, utilizando dados e de ferramentas para previsão de vazões disponíveis em modo operacional no Brasil. Como estudo de caso foi utilizada a bacia do Rio Paraopeba (12.150km²), de clima tipicamente tropical, localizada na região sudeste do Brasil. A metodologia proposta para geração das previsões hidrológicas utilizou o modelo hidrológico MGB-IPH alimentado por um conjunto previsões de precipitação de diferentes modelos, com diferentes condições iniciais e parametrizações, dando origem a distintos cenários de previsão de vazões. Como parâmetro de referência na avaliação do desempenho das previsões por conjunto foi utilizada uma previsão hidrológica determinística única, baseada em uma previsão de precipitação obtida da combinação ótima de saídas de diversos modelos meteorológicos. As previsões foram realizadas retrospectivamente no período entre ago/2008 e mai/2011, sendo analisadas durante o período chuvoso dos anos hidrológicos (out-abr). Os resultados das previsões de cheia por conjunto foram avaliados através de uma representação determinística, considerando a média dos membros do conjunto, assim como através de uma representação probabilística, considerando todos os membros, através de medidas de desempenho específicas para esse fim. Na avaliação determinística, a média do conjunto hidrológico apresentou resultados similares aos obtido com a previsão determinística de referência, embora tenha apresentado benefício significativo em relação à maior parte dos membros do conjunto. A avaliação das previsões de cheia por conjunto, por sua vez, mostrou a existência de uma superestimativa e de um subespalhamento dos membros em relação às observações, sobretudo nos primeiros intervalos de tempo da previsão. Na comparação dos resultados das previsões de eventos do tipo dicótomos, que consideram a superação ou não de vazões limites de alerta, o 9º decil das previsões por conjunto mostrou superioridade em relação à previsão determinística de referência e mesmo a média do conjunto, sendo possível obter, na maior parte dos casos analisados, um aumento significativo na proporção de eventos corretamente previstos mantendo as taxas de alarmes falsos em níveis reduzidos. Esse benefício foi, de modo geral, maior para maiores antecedências e vazões limites, situações mais importantes num contexto de prevenção de cheias. Os resultados mostraram ainda que, em média, uma diminuição do número de membros do conjunto diminui seu desempenho nas previsões. / The forecasting and issuing of early warnings represent a key element to prevent the impacts of flood events. An alternative to extend forecasting horizon is the use of rainfall-runoff modeling coupled with precipitation forecasts derived from numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. However, NWP models have difficulty to accurately predict precipitation due to the extremely sensitivity of the initial conditions. Therefore, this variable represents one of the major sources of uncertainties in flood forecasting. A probabilistic or ensemble forecasting approach was originally developed in the atmospheric sciences and then applied to other research areas. This procedure explores the uncertainties related to initial conditions and deficiencies in the structure of NWP models intending to improve its predictability. Using different NWP models or different initial conditions of a single model, an ensemble forecast showing possible trajectories of atmospheric processes over the forecast horizon are produced. Recent studies developed in Europe and the United States have shown promising results in flood forecasting using hydrological models fed by NWP ensemble outputs. The present research assess the performance of short term ensemble flood forecasting in a medium size tropical basin, based on data and streamflow forecasting tools available in operational mode in Brazil. The Paraopeba River basin (12,150 km²), located in the upper portion of the São Francisco River basin, in Southeastern Brazil, was selected as a case study. The proposed methodology used the MGB-IPH hydrological coupled to an ensemble of precipitation forecasts generated by several models with different initial conditions and parameterizations. The results are several scenarios of streamflow forecasts. A single deterministic streamflow forecast, based on a quantitative precipitation forecast derived from the optimal combination of several outputs of NWP models, was used as a reference to assess the performance of the streamflow ensemble forecasts. The streamflow forecasts were performed between aug/2008 and may/2011 and were analyzed during the rainy seasons (austral summer). The results from the ensemble flood forecasting were assessed by deterministic and probabilistic performance measures, with the ensemble mean being used by the former, and specific assessment measure by the later. Based on the deterministic assessment, the ensemble mean showed similar results to those obtained by the deterministic reference forecast, although showing better performance over most of the ensemble members. Based on the probabilistic performance measures, however, results showed the existence of an ensemble overforecasting and underspread of the members in regard to observed values, especially during the first lead times. The results for predictions of dichotomous events, which mean exceeding or not flood warning thresholds, showed that the 9th decile of the ensemble over performed the deterministic forecast and even the ensemble mean. In most cases, it was observed an increase in the proportion of correctly forecasted events while keeping false alarm rates at low levels. This benefit was generally higher for higher flow thresholds and for longer lead times, which are the most important situations for flood mitigation. The results show, also, that, in average, a reduction in the number of ensemble members decreases the performance of ensemble flood forecasts.

The development of the Severe Weather Impact Forecasting System (SWIFS) for flash flood hazards in South Africa is described in this thesis. Impact forecasting addresses the need to move from forecasting weather conditions to forecasting the consequential impact of these conditions on people and their livelihoods. SWIFS aims to guide disaster managers to take early action to minimise the adverse effects of flash floods focussing on hotspots where the largest impact is expected. The first component of SWIFS produced an 18-hour probabilistic outlook of potential occurrence of flash floods. This required the development of an ensemble forecast system of rainfall for small river basins (the forecasting model component), based on the rainfall forecast of a deterministic numerical weather prediction model, to provide an 18-hour lead-time, taking into account forecast uncertainty. The second component of SWIFS covered the event specific societal and structural impacts of these potential flash floods, based on the interaction of the potential occurrence of flash floods with the generalised vulnerability to flash floods of the affected region (the impact model component). The impact model required an investigation into the concepts of regional vulnerability to flash floods, and the development of relevant descriptive and mathematical definitions in the context of impact forecasting. The definition developed in the study links impact forecasting to the likelihood and magnitude of adverse impacts to communities under threat, based on their vulnerability and due to an imminent severe weather hazard. Case studies provided evidence that the concept of SWIFS can produce useful information to disaster managers to identify areas most likely to be adversely affected in advance of a hazardous event and to decide on appropriate distribution of their resources between the various hotspots where the largest impacts would be. SWIFS contributes to the current international research on short-term impact forecasting by focussing on forecasting the impacts of flash floods in a developing country with its limited spatial vulnerability information. It provides user-oriented information in support of disaster manager decision-making through additional lead-time of the potential of flash floods, and the likely impact of the flooding. The study provides a firm basis for future enhancement of SWIFS to other severe weather hazards in South Africa. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / gm2015 / Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology / PhD / Unrestricted