This thesis investigates whether there are alternative mechanisms of tip growth in invasive and non-invasive hyphae of the fungus Neurospora crassa. The cytoskeleton protein actin is thought to play a pivotal role in hyphal tip growth, performing a multitude of tasks, one of which may be the provision of a resistive force to counter turgor pressure. An Actin depleted zone (ADZ) was the dominant feature of invasive hyphal tips, which was largely absent from non-invasive hyphae. The Spitzenkörper was slightly larger in invasive hyphae but this size difference alone was thought insufficient to account for the exclusion of filamentous actin (F-actin) from the tip. The actin nucleating protein formin was found at sites where actin nucleation is occurring, while cofilin, a protein that severs F-actin, was found to localise where F-actin disassembly was likely to be occurring. It is suggested that these proteins are likely to play a role in controlling a dynamic cytoskeleton, rearrangements of which are required for the two modes of growth. Invasive hyphae were found to generate a higher turgor than non-invasive hyphae. These results suggest that the F-actin rearrangements facilitated by cofilin give an ADZ that may play a role in invasive hyphal tip growth; possibly through a reduction of tip resistance; thus enabling the provision of a greater protrusive force by turgor.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医科学) / 甲第23110号 / 医科博第121号 / 新制||医科||8(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医科学専攻 / (主査)教授 濵﨑 洋子, 教授 竹内 理, 教授 上野 英樹 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Spore formation is an essential step in the fungal life cycle that contributes to the dispersal of the organism and also to survival under harsh environmental conditions. The morphology of spores shows an astonishing diversity in the fungal kingdom and varies from very simple round and small spores to very complex multi-armed or sigmoid structures. With exception of the regulation of ascospore formation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, which are well-characterized model organisms for spore development in fungi, little is currently known about the regulation of more complex spore morphologies. In this study, the filamentous ascomycete Ashbya gossypii is used as a model system for the investigation of a complex and composite spore morphology. A. gossypii produces linear, needle-shaped spores possessing a length of 30 µm, which can be divided into three major segments: a rigid tip segment, a more fragile membrane compartment and a stable tail-cap. Furthermore, the different compartments were shown to correlate with distinct materials. While the tip segment and the tail-cap of the spores consist of stabilizing materials like chitin and chitosan, these materials are absent from the compartment in the middle. The actin cytoskeleton plays an essential role in several steps of spore formation in A. gossypii. Different regions of actin accumulation were identified that directly correlate with the developing spores. Especially the developing tip segment is characterized by heavy-bundled linear actin structures. Furthermore, proteins of the formin family, a class of actin organizing proteins, were identified to be directly involved in spore formation in A. gossypii. The formin AgBnr2 fulfills an actin-related key function during spore development by linking actin to the spindle pole body during sporulation. Downregulation of AgBNR2 leads to severe sporulation defects, indicating a central function in spore development. Moreover, AgBni1, another representative of the formin family, also has a regulatory function in size determination of the typical needle-shaped spores of A. gossypii. Using a modified yeast two-hybrid approach, four potential activators of the formin AgBni1 were identified: the Rho-type GTPases AgRho1a, AgRho1b, AgRho3 and AgRho4. The interaction of AgBni1 with the two Rho1 GTPases plays an important role during spore development. In this study, the Rho binding domain of AgBni1 was further examined to identify amino acids that are essential for the interaction with the Rho-type GTPases. Using random mutagenesis combined with a two-hybrid screen, the point mutation S250P in the Rho binding domain of AgBni1 was identified to reduce the interaction of the formin with the Rho1 GTPases. Integration of AgBni1 S250P causes an increase in spore length, suggesting a direct effect of this signaling pathway in spore length determination. An actin-regulating protein network that includes the formin AgBni1, the Rho-type GTPases AgRho1a and AgRho1b and the paxillin-like protein AgPxl1 was identified to be mainly involved in the regulation of the spore length. Thereby, this network seems to be involved in the arrangement of the different spore compartments via the actin cytoskeleton.

No description available.

The actin and microtubule cytoskeleton plays a critical role in the establishment of cell polarity. Cell processes like mitosis and migration rely on the reorganization of the cytoskeleton to properly function. One driver of cell polarity is the formin, Inverted Formin-1 (INF1). INF1 is able to induce F-actin formation, activate the Serum Response Factor (SRF) pathway, stabilize microtubules, associate with microtubules, and disperse the Golgi body. Regulation of INF1 is unique, since it does not possess conserved formin regulatory domains. However, INF1 does possess many potential phosphorylation sites. In this study, we demonstrate that INF1’s ability to induce F-actin stress fibers and activate SRF is inhibited by Microtubule-Affinity Regulating Kinase 2 (MARK2). Inhibition of INF1’s actin polymerization activity by MARK2 likely occurs near INF1’s C-terminus. However, MARK2 was unable to inhibit INF1’s ability to stabilize microtubules, associate with microtubules, and disperse the Golgi. Furthermore, we show that INF1 overexpression is associated with primary cilium absence and in some cases, the presence of long cilia, suggesting that INF1 plays a role in primary cilium formation.

The actin and microtubule cytoskeleton plays a critical role in the establishment of cell polarity. Cell processes like mitosis and migration rely on the reorganization of the cytoskeleton to properly function. One driver of cell polarity is the formin, Inverted Formin-1 (INF1). INF1 is able to induce F-actin formation, activate the Serum Response Factor (SRF) pathway, stabilize microtubules, associate with microtubules, and disperse the Golgi body. Regulation of INF1 is unique, since it does not possess conserved formin regulatory domains. However, INF1 does possess many potential phosphorylation sites. In this study, we demonstrate that INF1’s ability to induce F-actin stress fibers and activate SRF is inhibited by Microtubule-Affinity Regulating Kinase 2 (MARK2). Inhibition of INF1’s actin polymerization activity by MARK2 likely occurs near INF1’s C-terminus. However, MARK2 was unable to inhibit INF1’s ability to stabilize microtubules, associate with microtubules, and disperse the Golgi. Furthermore, we show that INF1 overexpression is associated with primary cilium absence and in some cases, the presence of long cilia, suggesting that INF1 plays a role in primary cilium formation.

The actin and microtubule cytoskeleton plays a critical role in the establishment of cell polarity. Cell processes like mitosis and migration rely on the reorganization of the cytoskeleton to properly function. One driver of cell polarity is the formin, Inverted Formin-1 (INF1). INF1 is able to induce F-actin formation, activate the Serum Response Factor (SRF) pathway, stabilize microtubules, associate with microtubules, and disperse the Golgi body. Regulation of INF1 is unique, since it does not possess conserved formin regulatory domains. However, INF1 does possess many potential phosphorylation sites. In this study, we demonstrate that INF1’s ability to induce F-actin stress fibers and activate SRF is inhibited by Microtubule-Affinity Regulating Kinase 2 (MARK2). Inhibition of INF1’s actin polymerization activity by MARK2 likely occurs near INF1’s C-terminus. However, MARK2 was unable to inhibit INF1’s ability to stabilize microtubules, associate with microtubules, and disperse the Golgi. Furthermore, we show that INF1 overexpression is associated with primary cilium absence and in some cases, the presence of long cilia, suggesting that INF1 plays a role in primary cilium formation.

Pour la cellule, l’assemblage du cytosquelette d’actine joue un rôle central dans son déplacement, sa division ou sa morphogenèse. Cette réorganisation est orchestrée par des protéines régulatrices et des contraintes mécaniques. Savoir comment les combinaisons de ces actions biochimiques et physiques régulent les différentes architectures d’actine reste un véritable défi.La formine protéine est un régulateur essentiel de l’actine. Ancrée à la membrane, elle assemble les filaments d’actine (nucléation et élongation) présents dans des architectures linéaires et non branchées. La formine est impliquée notamment dans la génération de filopodes, protrusions guidant la locomotion cellulaire.Une propriété remarquable est sa capacité à suivre processivement le bout barbé d’un filament qu’elle allonge, tout en stimulant son élongation en présence de profiline. La régulation de cette processivité de la formine est encore à clarifier. C’est une caractéristique importante, intervenant dans le contrôle de la longueur des filaments, dont les connaissances sont à approfondir.L’étude de cette processivité est facilitée par l’utilisation d’un outil microfluidique novateur pour l’étude de la dynamique de multiples filaments individuels d’actine in vitro. Au sein d’une chambre en PDMS, les filaments sont ancrés à la surface par un seul bout, le reste s’alignant avec le flux. Nous pouvons précisément y changer l’environnement biochimique,tandis que la friction visqueuse sur les filaments permet d’exercer une tension contrôlée sur chacun d’entre eux.Simultanément à l’action de la formine au bout barbé, j’étudie l’effet d’autres protéines ou de la vitesse d’élongation sur sa processivité, en mesurant son taux de détachement. Par ailleurs nous pouvons reproduire l’ancrage membranaire cellulaire en attachant spécifiquement nos formines à la surface. Dans la chambre, par l’intermédiaire du filament qu’elle allonge, nous pouvons alors exercer des forces et en étudier l’effet sur la formine.Premièrement, j’ai étudié l’impact de la protéine de coiffe (CP) sur l’activité de la formine au bout barbé. La liaison de ces deux protéines aubout barbé a jusqu’ici été considérée mutuellement exclusive. Nous avons observé qu’elles peuvent toutefois se retrouver simultanément liées au bout barbé, au sein d’un complexe à courte durée de vie. Ce complexe ternaire est capable de stopper l’activité du bout barbé même si l’affinité d’une protéine est réduite par la présence de l’autre. Nous proposons qu’une compétition entre la protéine de coiffe et la formine régule la dynamique du bout barbé dans des architectures où les longueurs doivent être hautement contrôlées.J’ai ensuite étudié l’influence de divers facteurs sur la processivité. La processivité est très sensible à la présence du sel et à la fraction demarquage fluorescent utilisée dans nos expériences. Nous avons également observé l’effet de la vitesse d’élongation, qui peut être modifiée en changeant la concentration en actine ou en profiline. D’une part, l’actine réduit la processivité, à n’importe quelle concentration de profiline. D’autre part, la concentration en profiline augmente cette processivité,indépendamment du taux d’élongation. Cela suggère qu’une incorporation de monomère diminue la processivité, tandis que la profiline, par sa présence au bout barbé, l’augmente.Enfin, la tension exercée sur les formines abaisse fortement la processivité : quelques piconewtons réduisent la processivité de plusieurs ordres de grandeurs. Cet effet, purement mécanique, prédomine sur les facteurs biochimiques. Ces résultats nous indiquent que les contraintes mécaniques de tension joueraient un rôle prédominant dans le contexte cellulaire. Cette étude nous aide à construire un modèle plus complet de l’élongation processive par les formines.En conclusion, ce projet permet de mieux comprendre le fonctionnement moléculaire de la formine, en particulier le mécanisme de l’élongation processive et de sa régulation / Actin filament assembly plays a pivotal role in cellular processes such as cell motility, morphogenis or division. Elucidating how the actin cytoskeleton is globally controlled remains a complex challenge. We know that it is orchestrated both by actin regulatory proteins and mechanical constraints.The formin protein is an essential actin regulator. Anchored to the cell membrane, it is responsible for the assembly (nucleation and elongation) of actin filaments found in linear and unbranched architectures. It is notably involved in the generation of filopodia protrusions at the leading edge of a motile cell. One important feature is that it processively tracks the barbed end of an actin filament, while stimulating its polymerization in the presence of profilin.Formin processivity and its regulation is not yet completely understood. As an important factor determining the length of the resulting filament, it must be investigated further.A perfect assay to look at formin processivity in vitro is an innovative microfuidics assay coupled to TIRF microscopy, pioneered by the team, to simultaneously track tens of individual filaments. In a designed chamber,filaments are anchored to the surface by one end, and aligned with the solution flow. We can precisely control the biochemical environment of the filaments. Moreover, we can exert and modulate forces on filaments, due to the viscous drag of flowing solutions. By varying chemical conditions during formin action at the barbed end, I investigated how others proteins or the elongation rate can modulate formin processivity, by looking at the detachment rate of formins.Moreover, we can mimic the membrane anchoring in the cell by specifically attaching formins at the surface. In our chamber, through the filament they elongate, we can apply force to formins.In complement to biochemical studies, we then investigate the effect oftension on their processivity.I first investigated the impact of a capping protein on formin action at the barbed end. Their barbed end binding is thought to be mutually exclusive.We measured that the affinity of one protein is reduced by the presence of the other. However we observed they both can bind simultaneously the barbed end, in a transient complex, which block barbed end elongation.Competition of formin and CP would regulate barbed end dynamics in a cell situation where length is tightly controlled.I next studied formin processivity dependence on various parameters. We show that processivity is sensitive to salt and labelling fraction used in our solutions. We also looked at how processivity is affected by the elongation rate, which can either be varied by actin or profilin concentration. On one hand, actin concentration reduces processivity, at any given concentrationsof profilin. On the other hand, raising the concentration of profilin increasesprocessivity, regardless of the elongation rate. This indicates that theincorporation of actin monomers decreases processivity while in contrast,the presence of the profilin at the barbed end increases it.Moreover, tension exerted on formin was observed to largely favor its detachment. In a quantitative matter, the effect of tension prevails over anyothers biochemical factor on processivity : only a few piconewtons decreaseit by several orders of magnitude. This important effect helps us build amore complete model of processive elongation. These results indicate thatmechanical stress is likely to play an important role in a cellular context.In conclusion, this project brings insights into the molecular properties offormin and helps to decipher the mechanism of processive elongation and its regulation.

Formins are proteins involved in regulation and construction of actin filaments of eucaryotic organism. They parcipitate in regulating cytokinesis, polar tip growth, and thus participate in development of whole organisms. There are 2 classes of formins in Arabidopsis thaliana. Both classes include FH1 and FH2 domains (formin homology 1 a 2). Class I formins have N-terminal transmembrane domain, unlike class II formins. Some formins of class II have a N-terminal PTEN domain (Phosphatase and Tensin Homolog). Sequence analyses predicted membrane binding via phosphatase or C2 subdomain of PTEN. This thesis was focused on the formin AtFH14, specifically its PTEN domain. Based on predicted sequence, a DNA fragment encoding the PTEN domain was amplified, sequenced and cloned to destination vectors for YFP and EOS phusions. Marked protein was visualized by transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana. Stably transformed Arabidopsis lines were prepared for stably expression of protein. The tagged protein was localized in cortical cytoplasm, cytoplasmatical strands, probably in nuclear membrane or perinuclear cytoplasm, as well as in peculiar "folicle-like" structures that might be due to binding of PTEN at the periphery of some membrane organelles. Also were seen filament structures, maybe caused by PTEN binding...

On the basis of detailed phenotypic examination of fh1 and fh2 mutants we observed that the main housekeeping Arabidopsis thaliana formin AtFH1 (At3g25500) and its closest relative, AtFH2 (At2g43800) are involved in both actin filaments and microtubule dynamics. fh1 mutants showed increased sensitivity to the actin polymerization inhibitor Latrunculin B (LatB). Formin mutants had cotyledon pavement cells which exhibited more pronounced lobes compared to the wild type, and alterations in vascular tissue patterning were found. The double fh1 fh2 homozygote was not obtained, suggesting that at least one functional formin gene is required for proper gametophyte development. Methods used to observe and quantify both architecture and dynamics of the cortical cytoskeleton from confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and variable angle epifluorescence microscopy (VAEM) were standarized and allowed to find that mutants exhibited more abundant but less dynamic F- actin bundles and more dynamic microtubules than wild type seedlings, fh1 mutant phenotype observed in roots was further aggravated by a (heterozygous) fh2 mutation. The formin inhibitor SMIFH2 mimicked the alterations observed in fh1 mutants in plants, it has been the first report of this inhibitor in plants. Defects in membrane trafficking were...