According to social psychologists, we as a species are inequity averse. We prefer conditions that foster fairness and reject injustice against common good. At the same time, however, unequal power and status hierarchies color almost every aspect of our lives. Advantages are distributed asymmetrically based on hierarchical status processes. Life, in other words, is systematically unfair in addition to being populated by free riders. Are the outcomes of potential free riders correlated with status as well? Does status affect the individual’s ability to successfully free ride? Are higher status actors typically granted a greater degree of social leniency than lower status actors? Are they less likely to be marked as free riders? I conducted a simple vignette study to in which participants were presented with a hypothetical, one-shot interaction, involving a collectively oriented, task in order to investigate the relationship between status and free riding.

Les systèmes complexes sont présents partout dans notre environnement : internet, réseaux de distribution d'électricité, réseaux de transport. Ces systèmes ont pour caractéristiques d'avoir un grand nombre d'entités autonomes, des structures dynamiques, des échelles de temps et d'espace différentes, ainsi que l'émergence de phénomènes. Ce travail de thèse se focalise sur la problématique du contrôle de tels systèmes. Il s'agit de déterminer, à partir d'une perception partielle de l'état du système, quelle(s) actions(s) effectuer pour éviter ou au contraire favoriser certains états globaux du système. Cette problématique pose plusieurs questions difficiles : pouvoir évaluer l'impact au niveau collectif d'actions appliqués au niveau individuel, modéliser la dynamique d'un système hétérogène (plusieurs comportements différents en interaction), évaluer la qualité des estimations issues de la modélisation de la dynamique du système. Nous proposons une architecture de contrôle selon une approche " equation-free ". Nous utilisons un modèle multi-agents pour évaluer l'impact global d'actions de contrôle locales avant d'appliquer la plus pertinente. Associée à cette architecture, une plateforme a été développée pour confronter ces idées à l'expérimentation dans le cadre d'un phénomène simulé de " free-riding " dans les réseaux d'échanges de fichiers pair à pair. Nous avons montré que cette approche permettait d'amener le système dans un état où une majorité de pairs partagent alors que les conditions initiales (sans intervention) feraient évoluer le système vers un état où aucun pair ne partage. Nous avons également expérimenté avec différentes configurations de l'architecture pour identifier les différents moyens d'améliorer ses performances / Complex systems are present everywhere in our environment: internet, electricity distribution networks, transport networks. This systems have as characteristics: a large number of autonomous entities, dynamic structures, different time and space scales and emergent phenomena. This thesis work is centered on the problem of control of such systems. The problem is defined as the need to determine, based on a partial perception of the system state, which actions to execute in order to avoid or favor certain global states of the system. This problem comprises several difficult questions: how to evaluate the impact at the global level of actions applied at a global level, how to model the dynamics of an heterogeneous system (different behaviors issue of different levels of interactions), how to evaluate the quality of the estimations issue of the modeling of the system dynamics. We propose a control architecture based on an ``equation-free'' approach. We use a multi-agent model to evaluate the global impact of local control actions before applying the most pertinent set of actions. Associated to our architecture, an experimental platform has been developed to confront the basic ideas or the architecture within the context of simulated ``free-riding'' phenomenon in peer to peer file exchange networks. We have demonstrated that our approach allows to drive the system to a state where most peers share files, despite given initial conditions that are supposed to drive the system to a state where no peer shares. We have also executed experiments with different configurations of the architecture to identify the different means to improve the performance of the architecture

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) technology is a kind of decentralized framework which is applied to file sharing and video streaming in Internet predominantly. However, there are some problems, like free-riding, fairness, unexpected fluctuation, in P2P systems. Especially, without free riding controlling, many users stop contributing data and only want to receive data. To avoid these problems, a credit-based incentive mechanism using sneak, public-key cryptography and multi-source technique is proposed to make peers in system have no choice but to share data. In the proposed incentive mechanism, the concept of credit is employed. If a peer can contribute more bandwidth for sharing stream, it is arranged closer to video server, to get more credit in return, have less packet loss risk and receive better stream quality. Free-rider is a peer who denies contributing or contributes less resource than it registers to the system. In the proposed mechanism, free-riders are judged by the credits of each peer. In order to prevent illegal behaviors, the public-key cryptography is used for differentiating real and fake credit, also used for tracing credits. Experimental results show that when 90% peers are zero uploading peers, using the proposed mechanism can reduce 85% of zero uploading peers. When 90% peers are cheating peers, adopting the proposed mechanism can reduce 94% of cheating peers. System utility is usually about 100%. Maximum number of hops to video server is about five to six which is much smaller than without using the proposed mechanism, about 40 hops. The loads in managing system topology and delivering sub-streams are reduced. Besides, the resource of the system is used effectively.

Mechanism design theory has given economists a set of tools for designing institutions to achieve socially desirable outcomes. Unfortunately, the behavioral assumptions that these theories often rest are somewhat unrealistic. Testing these institutions in a laboratory setting gives us insight into what assumptions or properties of institutions make them behaviorally successful. Moreover these insights allow us to create new theories that offer, in principle, better actual performance. Thus, the interplay between experimental economics and economic theory seems vital in mechanism design to insure successful institutions. It is in this spirit that this dissertation precedes focusing entirely with mechanisms that were designed to achieve the Lindahl allocation in a public goods environment. The first chapter experimentally examines three such mechanisms in a laboratory setting. It finds that the mechanism that gets the closest to the Lindahl allocation is the one that induces a game with very strong stability of equilibrium properties. Unfortunately this mechanism also has some clear disadvantages: first, it is very complicated; second, payoffs to consumers while learning to play equilibrium are very low; and last, the mechanism gets more complicated when more people participate. The second chapter uses the insights from the first experiment to create a new institution which avoids some of the concerns outlined above while maintaining the strong stability of equilibrium property. The third chapter contributes a missing stability result into the literature. The final chapter of the dissertation experimentally compares the new mechanism introduced in chapter 2 with the most successful mechanism from the first experiment. The treatments in this experiment are designed to stress the above observed trouble areas.

This thesis focus on the free rider problem, well known in the field of economics. It is an unwanted situation that gives rise to unnecessary deadweight costs. The aim of this thesis is to analyse the free rider problem that occur when rent include housing utilities and especially when electricity is billed collectively. A Difference-in-Differences design has been applied on two different sets of panel data covering tenants electricity consumption. The results show that tenants use 21.3 percent more electricity when not paying directly for their own electricity consumption. This thesis also shed some light on different components of this problem. The findings in this thesis contributes to the limited research in this field with new empirical evidence.

Purpose - The purpose of this thesis is to first describe and secondly to create a deeper understanding of what purpose a store has in omnichannel retailing. It is important to clarify that the study is to be of use for companies as to help them understand their customers' perspective. And how to adapt their omnichannel strategy when one of their channels gets affected. This is to see if a new model is viable in a post pandemic world. Methodology - The study applied a qualitative method where semi-structured interviews was held with employees and with consumers. Findings - The stores’ main purpose during the pandemic has been to act as a hybrid warehouse where you can view the product before fully purchasing it or to utilise BOPIS. The store has also had to change and adapt accordingly. Ultimately the store has proven to stand firm and showed that it still has a place in the market. Practical Implications - The current pandemic has made it more important for retailers to identify when showrooming or reverse showrooming is used. Therefore, a more in-depth analysis on the different approaches to minimise the usage of showrooming and reverse showrooming is necessary. As our findings from data and literature both cases suggest that price and product evaluation are the main reasons why consumers are showrooming. We can draw the conclusion that showrooming, and reverse showrooming is used mainly because of the price and evaluation of the product. Retailers should therefore introduce sales strategies to gain customers in the competitive market and minimise the risk for customers to use showrooming or reverse showrooming. Contribution - This study contributes to the young research area by assessing the effects that showrooming and reverse showrooming may have on retailers. And how to adapt their omnichannel strategy when one of their channels gets affected.

<p>The main purpose of this dissertation is to study whether the official rhetoric on the role that cooperatives could play in the quest for agricultural modernisation in Uganda have any resemblance with how farmers view the benefits and problem with cooperation. This question was motivated by the political initiative in the early 21st century to revive the cooperative movement in Uganda, a movement burdened with a history of political intervention and difficulties to adapt to a de-regulated agricultural market system. In the thesis, the move to revive the cooperative movement is linked to another more encompassing political initiative, that of the modernisation and commercialisation of small-scale agriculture. </p><p>The book consists of two empirical studies, where interviews and text analysis have been important research methods. By first analysing the rhetoric emanating from political institutions and donor agencies, the conclusion is drawn that cooperatives are seen primarily as an institutional device which, it is hoped, will fill spaces that have been abandoned by the state and not filled with private sector initiatives.</p><p>A focused case study of a dairy cooperative and a number of its members in Uganda shows that farmers’ expectations of the cooperative to some extent converge with those revealed in the first study: for example they expected the cooperative to provide a stable outlet for their production of milk. The interviews and quantitative analysis indicate that farmers’ preferences for <i>both</i> fast cash and a stable income can create incentives for members to free-ride on the collective efforts of their fellow members. This can be cumbersome in a competitive marketing situation where other buyers compete with the cooperative for the members’ produce. The cooperative can find it difficult to secure a necessary level of member commitment if members do not share a common code of conduct.</p>

The main purpose of this dissertation is to study whether the official rhetoric on the role that cooperatives could play in the quest for agricultural modernisation in Uganda have any resemblance with how farmers view the benefits and problem with cooperation. This question was motivated by the political initiative in the early 21st century to revive the cooperative movement in Uganda, a movement burdened with a history of political intervention and difficulties to adapt to a de-regulated agricultural market system. In the thesis, the move to revive the cooperative movement is linked to another more encompassing political initiative, that of the modernisation and commercialisation of small-scale agriculture. The book consists of two empirical studies, where interviews and text analysis have been important research methods. By first analysing the rhetoric emanating from political institutions and donor agencies, the conclusion is drawn that cooperatives are seen primarily as an institutional device which, it is hoped, will fill spaces that have been abandoned by the state and not filled with private sector initiatives. A focused case study of a dairy cooperative and a number of its members in Uganda shows that farmers’ expectations of the cooperative to some extent converge with those revealed in the first study: for example they expected the cooperative to provide a stable outlet for their production of milk. The interviews and quantitative analysis indicate that farmers’ preferences for both fast cash and a stable income can create incentives for members to free-ride on the collective efforts of their fellow members. This can be cumbersome in a competitive marketing situation where other buyers compete with the cooperative for the members’ produce. The cooperative can find it difficult to secure a necessary level of member commitment if members do not share a common code of conduct.

Co-operatives and housing co-operatives as main consideration of the dissertation are historically and philosophically developed institutions. Co-operative culture, although emerged in Britain during early phases of the industrial revolution, has been adapted by other countries within socialist, social democratic and even communist systems. In the contemporary era, housing co-operatives are still in existence and contribute housing production all over the world in every economic and political system. Institutional development of housing co-operatives in Turkey can be regarded as a process of adapting a Western institution and it shows how contextual differences result in changes in terms of ideology and implementation. In this respect, the thesis aims to evaluate Turkish housing co-operatives by putting forward their contextual differences. Housing co-operatives are non-governmental organizations and produce considerable amount of housing in Turkey. The dissertation regards housing co-operatives as a kind of collective action and discusses underlying factors of success of them with respect to collective action theories. Free riding, group size, critical mass, heterogeneity, network density and selective incentives are the factors obtained from the Theory of Free Rider and the Theory of Critical Mass and discussed regarding the Turkish co-operative development case to be tested via &ldquo / The Housing Co-operatives Interview Survey&rdquo / in istanbul and Ankara. The thesis&rsquo / findings provide that despite there might be expected effects of factors on success of housing co-operatives, these factors might be different due to the fact that they depends on desires of the critical mass / whether to act in favor of collective or individual benefits.

Conflict between self-interest and group-interest constitute a challenge for the individuals and the groups. The conflict should be resolved for a healthy maintenance of collective action / otherwise the free-rider problem is a likely result. This thesis is about the individual motivation loss -psychological aspect of free-rider problem- and its relation to group attachment &ndash / patriotism-. Free-riding is proposed to be related to patriotism / and guilt, shame and pride emotions. Experimental manipulations include an announcement and confederate condition. Patriotism is analysed within the framework of constructive and blind patriotism. An experiment &ndash / public goods game- measuring free-riding behaviour was conducted for the study. A total of 192 participants took a part in the experiment (98 females and 85 males). Free-riding was found to be negatively related to constructive patriotism / but no significant relation to blind patriotism was found. A look at the concept and development of &ldquo / individual&rdquo / and social capital theory is provided in order to help conceptualise the problem. Results and possible implications of the empirical findings are discussed. Implications are also discussed in a politically and culturally relevant way to Turkey.