O objetivo principal deste trabalho de Mestrado é avaliar compensadores que tentam diminuir o efeito do atrito estático existente em válvulas de controle. Os compensadores de atrito utilizados neste trabalho foram: CR1, CR2 Knocker, Two-move, controle por modos deslizantes e controle por modos deslizantes integrador. Estes compensadores são implementados em um ambiente industrial (SDCD). Devido ao atrito, o sistema tem um comportamento não-linear, o qual pode afetar o bom rendimento de um controlador PID, sendo que o sistema em malha fechada pode ter oscilações. Então, para obter uma diminuição do efeito do atrito, empregam-se compensadores de atrito. Para implementá-los, é necessário conhecer os parâmetros do atrito existente. Portanto, a primeira parte deste trabalho consiste em uma explicação dos diferentes modelos e métodos que se vai usar neste trabalho. Também foram realizadas simulações das estratégias de controle utilizadas. Após estes tópicos, vai se identificar o modelo do sistema que conta com uma malha de controle de vazão, com o objetivo de auxiliar na sintonia do controlador PID. Depois, introduzem-se os compensadores de atrito, os quais tentam minimizar os índices ITAE (Integrated Time Absolute Error) e IAE (Integrated Absolute Error), bem como o desgaste que se produz nos equipamentos, devido ao uso (excessiva movimentação da haste das válvulas). O objetivo assumido é implementar as estratégias de controle em um software industrial. Os resultados mostraram que os compensadores CR1 e CR2 obtiveram os melhores índices de desempenho e conseguiram compensar o atrito na haste da válvula de controle. / The main objective of this work is to evaluate compensators that try to decrease the static friction effect existent in control valves. The friction compensaters used in this work were: CR1, CR2, Knocker, Two-move, sliding mode control and sliding mode control with integrator. These compensators are implemented in an industrial environment (DCS). Due to friction, the system has a nonlinear behavior, which may affect the good performance of a PID controller, wherein the closed loop system can have oscillations. So to get a decrease in the effect of friction, friction compensators are employed. To implement them, it is necessary to know the parameters of the friction existent. So the first part of this work consists of an explanation of the different models and methods that will be use in this work. Also, simulations were made of the control strategies used. After these topics, it will be identify the system model which has a own control loop, in order to help the PID controller tuning. Then it will be introduced friction compensators, which attempt to minimize the ITAE (Integral Time Absolute Error) and IAE (Integrated Absolute Error), and wear that occurs on the equipment due to the use (excessive movement of the valve stem). The assumed objective is to implement control strategies in industrial software. The results show that the compensators CR1 and CR2 have the best performance indexes and they compensate for the friction in the control valve stem.

A otimização da formulação do óleo lubrificante empregado em motores de combustão interna é uma importante maneira de se reduzir o atrito e assim aumentar a eficiência energética. É também uma forma de assegurar proteção ao sistema, mantendo a taxa de desgaste em um nível adequado. O óleo de motor é uma mistura de óleos básicos selecionados com aditivos, entre os quais podem ser encontrados os modificadores de atrito, que são compostos com capacidade de aderir às superfícies metálicas, proporcionando melhoria da lubrificação em condições mista e limítrofe. O dialquilditiocarbamato de molibdênio (MoDTC) está entre os mais importantes redutores de atrito empregados em óleos lubrificantes. Ésteres sintéticos podem ser usados como óleos básicos em algumas formulações. Visto que ésteres são mais polares que hidrocarbonetos, essas moléculas podem atuar modificando propriedades do óleo na região próxima à superfície metálica. Podem também interferir com filmes adsorvidos, limitando sua efetividade. O objetivo do trabalho é a comparação dos efeitos do MoDTC em diferentes misturas contendo hidrocarboneto e éster. Para isso, formulações lubrificantes contendo uma polialfaolefina, um diéster e um aditivo à base de MoDTC foram preparadas, caracterizadas e ensaiadas em tribômetro oscilatório SRV usando configuração esfera-­disco. Foram empregadas esferas de aço AISI 52100 e discos de aço AISI H13. Foi estudada a influência da variação da temperatura e da força normal aplicada. Empregando-­se mistura de hidrocarboneto e éster como lubrificante, o aumento da temperatura causou leve aumento do coeficiente de atrito. Em ausência de MoDTC, a presença de éster aumentou a capacidade de suportação de carga das formulações. Os testes com óleos contendo MoDTC foram marcados pela ocorrência de dois fenômenos: ativação e depleção do aditivo. Estes fenômenos se mostraram dependentes da carga normal e da composição do óleo. O efeito de redução do atrito pelo MoDTC tende a ser menos duradouro com óleos mais ricos em éster e em condições de carregamento mais severo. O comportamento tribológico do éster em mistura com polialfaolefina, medido através do coeficiente de atrito, seguiu a isoterma de adsorção de Frumkin, com alguma atração entre as moléculas do éster, e energia livre da ordem de -­4 kJ/mol, típica de fisissorção. Óleos envelhecidos artificialmente foram testados e não apresentaram diferenças significativas com relação aos mesmos óleos novos. A adição de etanol aos óleos envelhecidos causou uma leve diminuição no coeficiente de atrito a 40 °C; tal efeito não foi perceptível em temperaturas mais altas, provavelmente devido à perda por evaporação do álcool. / The optimization of the lubricant oil formulation used in internal combustion engines is an important way of reducing friction, thus increasing energetic efficiency. It is also a way of protecting the system, maintaining wear rate in an adequate level. The engine oil is a blend of selected base oils with additives, amongst which are the friction modifiers substances able to adhere to the metal surfaces, thus providing better lubrication at the mixed and boundary regimes. Molybdenum dialkyldithiocarbamate (MoDTC) is amongst the most important friction reducers used in lubricant oils. Synthetic esters may be employed as base oils in some formulations as well. Given that esters are more polar than hydrocarbons, these molecules can actuate by modifying oil properties in the near-­surface region. They can also interfere with adsorbed films, preventing their effectiveness. The objective of this work is the comparison of the effects of MoDTC in different mixtures containing hydrocarbon and ester. With this aim, lubricating formulations containing a polyalphaolefin, a diester and a MoDTC-­based additive were prepared, characterized and tested in a reciprocating SRV tribometer using ball-­on-­disc configuration. AISI 52100 steel balls and AISI H13 steel discs were employed. The influences of the temperature and of the normal load were both studied. Employing a mixture of hydrocarbon and ester as lubricant, a higher temperature caused a slightly higher coefficient of friction in the lubricant free of additive. In the absence of MoDTC, the ester increased the load-­carrying capacity of the lubricant formulations. Tests with MoDTC-­containing oils were characterized by two phenomena: activation and depletion of the additive. These phenomena showed to be dependent on the normal load and on the oil composition. The MoDTC friction reducing effect tends to be less sustainable with higher ester concentrations and at higher loads. The tribological behavior of the ester in the presence of polyalphaolefin, as measured by the coefficient of friction, followed the Frumkin adsorption isotherm, with some attraction between ester molecules, and free energy in the order of -­4 kJ/mol, typical of physisorption. Artificially aged oils were tested and did not show differences when compared with the results of the fresh oils. Adding ethanol to the aged oils caused a slightly reduction in the coefficient of friction at 40 °C, but this effect was not observed at higher temperatures, probably due to evaporation loss of the alcohol.

L’allègement des structures est actuellement un enjeu industriel majeur. L’utilisation de certains alliages d’aluminium couplés à de nouveaux procédés d’assemblages est une bonne réponse à cette problématique. Le procédé de soudage FSW permet notamment la réalisation d’assemblages multi-matériaux en s’affranchissant des problèmes de fusion. Cette étude, réalisée au sein de l’entreprise TRA-C industrie, s’est intéressée plus particulièrement au cas du soudage FSW hétérogène d’alliages d’aluminium des séries 2xxx (Al-Cu-Mg-Ag) et 7xxx (Al-Zn-Mg), dans une large gamme de paramètres industriels. Les caractérisations des assemblages ont pu mettre en avant de fortes hétérogénéités microstructurales et mécaniques au travers des cordons. Ainsi la présence d’une zone faible, adoucie dans la ZAT du côté de l’alliage 7xxx, amène à favoriser la rupture en traction. Une évolution métallurgique importante déclenchée par le cycle thermique généré explique principalement ce phénomène. D’autre part, cette étude expérimentale a été couplée à des travaux de simulation numérique du procédé en configuration homogène. Le modèle éléments finis intègre, pour la première fois, la géométrie réelle et complexe (filetage, facettes, …) de l’outil de soudage utilisé expérimentalement et est couplé à l’utilisation d’une technique de maillage mobile. Cette technique numérique a permis de s’affranchir intégralement des distorsions de mailles conséquentes souvent rencontrées, ainsi que de décrire fidèlement les effets thermomécaniques engendrés par l’outil de soudage. Une étude de sensibilité aux paramètres de soudage ainsi qu’aux matériaux soudés a démontré une excellente corrélation entre les cinétiques thermiques expérimentales et numériques tout en démontrant l’aspect prédictif du modèle. / The lightweight structures optimisation is one of the main topics in transportation industry. It can be achieved by optimisation of materials as well as induced assembly process. As a solid-state process, Friction Stir Welding (FSW) allows to produce dissimilar materials joining while avoiding fusion defects. This work focused on the dissimilar welding of aluminium alloys from 2xxx (Al-Cu-Mg-Ag) and 7xxx (Al-Zn-Mg) series in an industrial context. Joints characterizations were conducted at multiple scales to understand parameters impact on material flow, joint morphology, and performances. They have shown large heterogeneities in the microstructure as well as the global and local mechanical behaviour. Whatever the welding parameters used, good mechanical performance has been reached. A specific softened zone has been detected in the 7xxx alloy’s HAZ which caused fracture during transverse tensile test. Significant metallurgical evolution induced by thermal cycles mainly explains these phenomena.On the other hand, simulation works were also conducted to simulate the welding process in similar material configuration. The finite elements model integrates, for the first time, the real and complex tool design (thread, flats…). Complex geometry can be used by coupling with a specific moving mesh technique. This numerical development completely overcomes the consequent mesh distortion often encountered in FSW simulation. The current model presents good sensitivity and robustness for several welding conditions and materials. It also demonstrates an excellent correlation between experimental and numerical thermal fields while revealing the predictive aspect of the model.

Dans les contacts fortement dissipatifs, la dissipation d'énergie par frottement conduit à des sollicitations thermiques très sévères qui peuvent avoir des répercussions conséquentes sur les performances, la durabilité des organes de friction, l'environnement ou la santé humaine. La connaissance des champs thermiques des surfaces de frottement est un enjeu de premier ordre. Dans le cas de mesures sans contact du rayonnement calorifique, elle s'avère difficile du fait de l'émissivité inconnue de ces surfaces, qui varie spatialement et temporellement lors du frottement. Les travaux ont concerné le développement d'une mesure de champs thermiques par thermographie bichromatique dont l'intérêt est d'accéder simultanément à la température et à l'émissivité de surface. Les difficultés résident dans le recalage spatial et temporel de deux imageurs infrarouges, la calibration en flux des caméras et la variation spectrale de l'émissivité. La technique développée a été appliquée à la mesure in situ des champs de température et d'émissivité d'un disque de frein pendant le freinage, et exploitée pour l'analyse des localisations thermiques induites par le frottement et de leurs interactions avec le circuit tribologique, tirant parti de la connaissance de l'évolution spatiale et temporelle de l'émissivité. / In highly dissipative contacts, the energy dissipated by friction leads to severe thermal loads which could have bad consequences on performances, on friction parts durability, on the environment or on human health. Therefore, knowledge of sliding surfaces thermal fields is a first-rate issue. Due to the lack of knowledge about the emissivity of those surfaces, which change both spatially and temporally during friction, measuring thermal fields is difficult. The work done concerned the development of thermal fields measurement by bispectral thermography, which allows to get simultaneously surface emissivity and temperature. The difficulties reside in the spatial and temporal images registration of two infrared cameras, in the camera flows calibration and in the spectral emissivity variation. The technique developed was applied to the in situ fields measurement of temperature and emissivity of a brake disc during braking. It was then used for analysis of thermal locations induced by friction and their interactions with the tribological circus, leveraging the knowledge of the spatial and temporal evolution of the emissivity.

La présente thèse se concentre tout d'abord à mettre en place des expérimentations de compaction dynamique de poudres.Un montage expérimentale est conçu, testé puis validé. Le but de ce dernier est de générer des ondes de compaction unidimensionnelles et de pouvoir observer le milieu granulaire à l'échelle des grains. Deux types de poudres sont considérés : une poudre de polypropylène et une poudre d'explosif (RDX).Pour cela, des caméras ultra-rapides (50 000 images/s) sont utilisée pour enregistrer les essais. Une technique de corrélation d'image est utilisée pour remonter aux champs de déplacement et de vitesse des grains.Un modèle de compaction multiphasique est implémenté. Les phénomènes de friction grain/paroi sont ajoutés au modèle suite aux observation expérimentale. Une partie du travail a été consacré à l'amélioration de l'équation d'état granulaire et à sa détermination expérimentale.Les résultats numériques sont en bon accord avec les expérimentations, tant que le montage expérimental ne se déforme pas sous l'effet de la pression des grains.De premières expérimentations avec les poudres d'explosifs ont été réalisées. Le montage expérimental nécessite encore certaines améliorations mais il a prouvé son utilité dans l'étude de la transition combustion-déflagration-détonation. / The first part of the present PhD focuses on the conception and the validation of an experimental set up. The aim of the experiments is to generate one-dimensional compaction waves and to observe the media at the grains scale. Two type of powder are used : polypropylene powder and an explosive powder (RDX).The experimental apparatus uses ultra-fast cameras (50 000 images/s) to record the tests. Image correlation is used to compute the displacement and velocity fields.A multiphasic compaction model is then coded. Grain/wall friction is added as the experimental work underlined its importance. Additional work has been provided concerning the granular equation of state and its experimental determination.Numerical results are in good agreement with the experimenations, as long as the experimental set up is not deformed because of the grains' pressure.A few experiments have been done with explosive powders. The experimental set up still needs some improvement but it proved its usefullness for deflagration to detonation studies.

A l'heure où les matériaux composites prennent une part toujours plus importante dans les structures aéronautiques, l'utilisation de l'alliage d'aluminium-lithium 2050 assemblé par Friction Stir Welding (FSW) est envisagé pour remplacer les structures rivetées en alliages d'aluminium traditionnels. L'objectif global de ce travail de thèse était d'étudier le comportement en corrosion et en corrosion sous contrainte de joints soudés FSW de l'alliage d'aluminium-lithium 2050 mais aussi l'influence d'un post-traitement thermique sur les comportements observés. Dans ce but, la microstructure, le comportement mécanique et le comportement en corrosion et en corrosion sous contrainte de l'alliage 2050 servant de matériau de base à l'élaboration des joints soudés FSW ont d'abord été analysés ; ensuite, nous nous sommes focalisés sur le comportement en corrosion et en corrosion sous contrainte des structures FSW proprement dites, en analysant bien entendu la microstructure complexe de ces joints soudés et les propriétés mécaniques résultantes. Les résultats obtenus montrent que l'alliage 2050, bien que sensible à certaines formes de corrosion, semble bien plus performant que les alliages d'aluminium traditionnellement utilisés en aéronautique. Sa sensibilité à la corrosion sous contrainte notamment est très faible. Les structures FSW, après traitement thermique post soudage, ont également un très bon comportement en corrosion et en corrosion sous contrainte. Les joints soudés FSW de l'alliage d'aluminium-lithium 2050 apparaissent donc comme une solution très prometteuse pour l'industrie aéronautique. / Today, composite materials are more and more used for aircraft structures; however, the aluminium-lithium 2050 alloy joined using a Friction Stir Welding (FSW) process could be used to replace riveted structures made of traditional aluminium alloys. The aim of this PhD work was to study the corrosion behaviour and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) behaviour of FSW joints of aluminium-lithium 2050 alloy and also the influence of a post welding heat treatment on the behaviours observed. Therefore, the microstructure, the mechanical behaviour and the corrosion and SCC behaviour of the 2050 alloy used for the FSW joints were first analyzed; then, the work was focused on the corrosion and SCC behaviours of the FSW joints. The complex microstructure of the FSW joints and the resultant mechanical properties were studied. The results showed that the 2050 alloy was more corrosion resistant than traditional aluminium alloys used for aircrafts even if it was susceptible to intergranular and/or intragranular corrosion. Its susceptibility to SCC was very low. The FSW joints, after a post welding heat treatment, also show a low susceptibility to corrosion and SCC. As a conclusion, the FSW joints of 2050 alloy seem to be a relevant solution to replace riveted structures of traditional aluminium alloys.

L'objectif de ce travail est de comprendre l'influence des particules très fines sur le phénomène de ré-agglomération lors du broyage. Des billes de verre de taille 0 à 20 µm avec un pourcentage massique variant entre 0 à 1% sont ajoutées dans un tas granulaire de billes de verre de 200 à 300 µm dans un tambour tournant cylindrique de diamètre et longueur 10 cm. La présence des particules fines montre un effet ambivalent sur la stabilité du tas granulaire. Nous avons établi un diagramme de stabilité du milieu granulaire en fonction de la concentration de particules fines et cherché à quantifier l'effet des fines combiné avec d'autres paramètres (humidité relative et vitesse de rotation du tambour). La stabilité d'un tas granulaire dans un tambour tournant est déterminée par la mesure de son angle maximum de stabilité θm. Dans un premier temps, nous avons étudié l'évolution de cet angle à des vitesses de rotation différentes. Les expériences montrent qu'à faible concentration (< 0; 15%), le tas se déstabilise par avalanches lorsque le tambour tourne, θm diminue lorsqu'on augmente la quantité de fines. Quand la vitesse de rotation augmente, le mouvement du tas évolue du régime d'avalanche intermittent au régime d'écoulement continu. En revanche, lorsque la concentration des fines est supérieure à 0,15%, la déstabilisation du tas se traduit par un phénomène de stick-slip à la paroi du tambour, et la quantité de fines augmente la stabilité du tas. Ce comportement apparemment contradictoire est lié au fait que la localisation de la déstabilisation est modifiée. Dans le régime des faibles concentrations, les avalanches commencent à la surface du tas, et le remplissage de l'espace intermédiaire entre les grosses billes par les fines rend la surface de plus en plus lisse, ce qui déstabilise le tas. Par ailleurs, les fines induisent une augmentation de la cohésion du tas par la nucléation des ponts capillaires entre les grains. Ainsi, dans le régime des fortes concentrations, le tas granulaire se comporte comme un corps solide et la déstabilisation a lieu à l'interface tas-tambour. Nous avons également étudié l'influence de l'humidité relative sur la stabilité et montré que dans le régime de faible concentration de particules fines, la déstabilisation est indépendante de l'humidité. D'autre part dans le régime des hautes teneurs en fines, une humidité relative élevée induit une forte cohésion due à la condensation capillaire entre les grains et le tambour ce qui entraîne une augmentation de l'angle maximum de stabilité. / The aim of this work is to understand the effect of very fine particles on the phenomenon of re-agglomeration in the grinding process. Various amount of fine glass beads of 0 to 20 µm (0 to 1% mass concentration) are added to a granular pile of glass beads of 200 to 300 µm rotated in a drum with inner diameter and length of 10 cm. The presence of fine particles shows an ambivalent effect on the stability of the granular heap. We established a stability diagram of the granular medium as a function of fine concentration and quantified the effect of fines combined with other parameters (relative humidity and rotation velocity). The stability of a granular heap in a rotating drum is determined by the measurement of the maximum angle of stability θm. Firstly, we studied the evolution of this angle with different rotation velocities. The experiments indicate that at low fine concentration (< 0:15%), the heap destabilizes through avalanches when the drum rotates, and increasing the fine quantity tends to decrease θm. When the rotation velocity increases, the granular medium transits from intermittent avalanche to continuous flow. In contrast, once the concentration is more than 0:15%, the destabilization of the heap proceeds through a stick-slip phenomenon at the drum wall, and the increase of the fraction of fines tends to increase the stability of the heap. This apparent contradictory behavior is linked to the modification of the destabilization location. In the small concentration regime, the avalanches start at the surface of the heap, and the filling of the interstitial space by the fine particles makes this surface smoother and smoother, thus destabilizing the heap. Besides, the fines induce, through the nucleation of capillary bridges between grains, an increase of the bulk cohesion of the heap. So in the large concentration regime, the heap behaves as a solid body and the destabilization occurs at its bottom. We also studied the influence of relative humidity on the granular stability in our experiment. We found out in the low fine concentration regime, the destabilization is independent of humidity. On the other hand, in the regime of high content of fines, high relative humidity induces a large cohesion due to the capillary condensation between the grains and the wall which induce the increase of the maximum stability angle.

Rising demand for improved fuel economy and structural efficiency are the key factors for use of aluminum alloys for light weighting in aerospace industries. Precipitation strengthened 2XXX and 7XXX aluminum alloys are the key aluminum alloys used extensively in aerospace industry. Welding and joining is the critical step in manufacturing of integrated structures. Joining of precipitation strengthened aluminum alloys using conventional fusion welding techniques is difficult and rather undesirable in as it produces dendritic microstructure and porosities which can undermine the structural integrity of weldments. Friction stir welding, invented in 1991, is a solid state joining technique inherently benefitted to reduces the possibility of common defects associated with fusion based welding techniques. Weldability of various 2XXX and 7XXX aluminum alloys via friction stir welding was investigated. Microstructural and mechanical property evolution during welding and after post weld heat treatment was studied using experimental techniques such as transmission electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, hardness testing, and tensile testing. Various factors such as peak welding temperature, cooling rate, external cooling methods (thermal management) which affects the strength of the weldment were studied. Post weld heat treatment of AL-Mg-Li alloy produced joint as strong as the parent material. Modified post weld heat treatment in case of welding of Al-Zn-Mg alloy also resulted in near 100% joint efficiency whereas the maximum weld strength achieved in case of welds of Al-Cu-Li alloys was around 80-85% of parent material strength. Low dislocation density and high nucleation barrier for the precipitates was observed to be responsible for relatively low strength recovery in Al-Cu-Li alloys as compared to Al-Mg-Li and Al-Zn-Mg alloys.

The objective of this Master’s thesis is to find shape optimal design based on min- imizing friction force of thrust bearing by using genetic algorithm(GA) which is one of an optimization toolbox in Matlab. Reducing the friction force of thrust bearing is one way of making shaft to decreasing friction losses. With four parameters of thrust bearing geometry number of segments(m), angle of running surface(), segment inner radius(R0), and segment outer radius(R1) substitute in Reynolds’ equation. In order to know friction force, it is necessary to generate a connecting variable, oil film thickness(h0) from loading capacity(W ) and revolution per minute(rpm). Friction power loss, as well as weight func- tion conclude the final shape optimization of thrust bearing: m = 7, = 0.1, R0 = 15 mm, and R1 = 20 mm.

Aim of the diploma thesis is set to present a new method for evaluation of the friction coefficient of the wastegate valve system. A test fixture was designed and manufactured for this purpose. Simulations in ANSYS and MSC Adams support test results. The developed method provides an accurate and affordable solution for investigating of friction coefficient for various valves of turbochargers wastegate.