Thesis (MA (Psychology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The important role of interpersonal relationships in the adolescent developmental period has been extensively demonstrated in the literature (e.g. Brown, 1991; Gottlieb, 1991; Larson, Wilson, Brown, Furstenburg, & Verma, 2002). In the present study, adolescents’ relationships with their mothers, fathers, romantic partners, and best friends were investigated. The sample consisted of mainly White and Coloured late-adolescents from four schools in and around a large country town, representing different cultures and socio-economic backgrounds. Their relationships were investigated by assessing in what relationships adolescents reported the most and least of certain relationship qualities like support and intimacy. This was assessed with the use of two self-report questionnaires. The questionnaires used was the Network of Relationships Inventory (NRI), a 33-item Likerttype scale with which intimacy, companionship, affection, nurturance, satisfaction, relative power, punishment and conflict (C1) was assessed, and the Quality of Relationships Inventory (QRI), a 25-item Likert-type scale with which support and conflict (C2) was assessed (Touliatos, Perlmutter, & Holden, 2001). It was found that adolescents reported the different relationship qualities differently in all their relationships. The following are the main findings for the different relationship qualities: - Support: Support was found to be equally as high for mothers, best friends and romantic partners, with fathers ranked lowest for support. - Intimacy: Intimacy with romantic partners was reported as being the highest, followed by best friends and then mothers and intimacy from fathers being the lowest. - Companionship: The highest level of companionship was reported for best friends and romantic partners, who did not differ significantly from each other. This was followed by companionship from mothers and companionship from fathers was the lowest. - Affection: The highest level of affection was reported for mothers, followed by romantic partners and then fathers, with the lowest levels of affection coming from best friends. - Nurturance: Romantic partners were rated highest for nurturance, followed by best friends and mothers, who did not differ significantly from each other. The lowest level of nurturance was reported for fathers. - Satisfaction: Adolescents were most satisfied with their romantic relationships, best friends and mother-relationships, as they did not differ significantly from each others. Adolescents were least satisfied with their father-relationships. - Relative Power: Adolescents felt most powerful in their mother-relationships, followed by their relationships with their fathers. The third most power was reported in romantic relationships and adolescents felt the least powerful in their relationships with their best friends. - Punishment: Adolescents were punished most by their mothers, then their fathers and then their romantic partners and they were punished least by their best friends. - Conflict: Conflict reported was equally as high for mothers, fathers and romantic partners, with the lowest levels of conflict reported with their best friends. Apart from the above findings, analyses were also done between the different relationship qualities, relationships, and certain demographic factors. The results are supported by the developmental-contextual framework, as it emphasizes how the different aspects of adolescents’ relationships and lives are interrelated. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die belangrike rol wat interpersoonlike verhoudings in die ontwikkelingstadium van adolessensie speel, is al breedvoerig gedemonstreer in die literatuur (bv. Brown, 1991; Gottlieb, 1991; Larson, Wilson, Brown, Furstenburg, & Verma, 2002). In die huidige studie is adolessente se verhoudings met hul ma’s, pa’s, romantiese vennote, en beste vriende ondersoek. Die steekproef het bestaan uit hoofsaaklik Kleurling en Wit laat-adolessente van vier skole in en om ‘n groot plattelandse dorp, verteenwoordigend van verskillende kulture en sosio-ekonomiese agtergronde. Hul verhoudings is ondersoek deur te meet in watter verhoudings die meeste en minste van sekere verhoudingskwaliteite soos ondersteuning en intimiteit, gerapporteer is. Dit is ge-asseseer met die gebruik van twee self-rapporteer vraelyste. Die vraelyste wat gebruik is, was die “Network of Relationships Inventory (NRI)”, ‘n 33-item Likert-tipe skaal waarmee intimiteit, kameraadskap, toegeneentheid, versorging, tevredenheid, relatiewe mag, straf en konflik (C1) ge-asseseer is, en die “Quality of Relationships Inventory (QRI)”, ‘n 25-item Likert-tipe skaal waarmee ondersteuning en konflik (C2) ge-asseseer is (Touliatos, Perlmutter, & Holden, 2001). Dit is bevind dat adolessente die verskillende verhoudingskwaliteite verskillend gerapporteer het vir die verskillende verhoudings. Die volgende is die hoofbevindings vir die verskillende verhoudingskwaliteite: - Ondersteuning: Adolessente het die meeste en gelyke ondersteuning gerapporteer van hul ma’s, beste vriende en romantiese vennote, met die laagste ondersteuning komende van pa’s. - Intimiteit: Intimiteit met romantiese vennote is gerapporteer as die hoogste, gevolg deur beste vriende en dan romantiese vennote, en die minste intimiteit met pa’s. - Kameraadskap: Die hoogste vlak van kameraadskap is gerapporteer vir beste vriende en romantiese vennote wat nie beduidend van mekaar verskil het nie. Kameraadskap met ma’s was derde en kameraadskap met pa’s was laaste. - Toegeneentheid: Die hoogste vlak van toegeneentheid is gerapporteer vir ma’s, gevolg deur romantiese vennote en dan pa’s, met die minste toegeneentheid gerapporteer vir beste vriende. - Versorging: Romantiese vennote is die hoogste ge-ag vir versorging, gevolg deur ma’s en beste vriende, wat nie beduidend van mekaar verskil het nie. Die minste versorging is gerapporteer van pa’s. - Tevredenheid: Adolessente was mees tevrede met hul verhoudings met hul ma’s, beste vriende en romantiese vennote, wat nie beduidend van mekaar verskil het nie. Hulle was die minste tevrede met hul verhoudings met hul pa’s. - Relatiewe mag: Adolessente het die meeste mag gerapporteer in hul verhoudings met hul ma’s, gevolg deur hul pa’s en dan hul romantiese vennote, met die minste mag in hul verhoudings met hul beste vriende. - Straf: Adolessente is die meeste gestraf deur hul ma’s en dan hul pa’s, gevolg deur hul romantiese vennote en laastens hul beste vriende. - Konflik: Konflik was ewe hoog vir ma’s, pa’s en romantiese vennote, met die minste konflik gerapporteer vir beste vriende. Buiten bogenoemde resultate, is daar ook analises gedoen tussen die verskillende verhoudingskwaliteite, verhoudings en sekere demografiese faktore. Die resultate word ondersteun deur die ontwikkelings-kontekstuele raamwerk, aangesien dit beklemtoon hoe die verskillende aspekte van adolessente se verhoudings en lewens verbind is.

Social Interaction Technologies (SIT) have broadened the horizon of communication in terms of the way people are able to communicate. It is now possible to interact with others across the world and engage in numerous activities ranging from dating to political movements, hobbies and even professions (Chigona, Chigona, Ngqokelela, & Mpofu, 2009). Adolescents and pre-adolescents especially are inclined to make use of SIT in their social lives with the most popular mode of communication, apart from email, being instant messaging (IM) (Brown, Mounts, Lamborn, & Steinberg, 1993; Bryant, Sanders-Jackson, & Smallwood, 2006; Madden & Rainie, 2003). Adolescents tend to use IM regularly as a tool to maintain relationships and girls especially, use it as a tool to socialise (Jennings & Wartella, 2004; Lenhart, Rainie, & Lewis, 2001). The mobile phone or cell phone, which is another example of an SIT-based communication, has become an established medium of technical, social and commercial communication in South Africa. It has given rise to the development and vast growth of a mobile youth culture who consider it an essential tool for communicating (Bosch, 2008). In South Africa, instant messages may be sent via mobile phone using one of two methods: MXit and the SMS (short messaging service). MXit and the SMS are considered convenient tools of communication as an ongoing conversation in the form of a text message may be maintained in the present (Yoshii, Matsuda, Habuchi, Dobashi, Iwata, & Kin, 2002).

Adolescence is a time of great exploration and change. During this time, youth are transitioning both biologically and sexually into adults. Adolescents are also testing the boundaries of self-reliance and making choices about their personal relationships. Not surprisingly, aggressive urges are often driven by peers in pursuit of some form of identity (Masten 2004). Peers can have both positive and negative effects on the wellbeing on youth. Peer groups can provide emotional, physical, and social support to youth during a time of immense change (Parker and Asher 1987; Gest, Graham-Berman, and Hartup 2001). Peers can also model delinquent and risk-taking behaviors that have lasting health, social, and economic consequences throughout the life course. In an effort to understand the role of friendships in adolescent health, social scientists have increasingly focused on adolescent network structures within schools and the role various positions and peer group formations influence behaviors such as alcohol and cigarette use, violent and serious delinquency, and sexual risk-taking. While informative, peer networks studies have yet to adequately address how peer network structures based on immigrant generation and types of marginalized social positions influence health risk behavior engagement among adolescents. In three studies, I address the dearth of research in these areas, using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). The first study investigates the influence of generational peers on alcohol misuse among immigrant youth. Testing hypotheses derived from sociological theories of generations regarding race/ethnicity, gender, and immigrant generation, findings from this study demonstrate generational ties are inversely related to alcohol misuse for immigrants and these effects depend partly on race/ethnicity and gender. The second study investigates the effects of specific network forms of social isolation on heavy episodic drinking and cigarette use among adolescents. The central finding from this study is that different network-based forms of social isolation had varying effects on alcohol and cigarette use when compared to sociable youth. The final study examines the relationship between types of social isolation and violent delinquency when compared to sociable youth. Deriving hypotheses from general strain theory, I test whether the isolation-violence relationship varies across isolation types when compared to sociable youth. I also test whether other negative experiences and circumstances (strains) tied to adolescence moderate the relationship between isolation types and violent delinquency. Finally, studies indicate a consistent gender gap in criminality. Therefore, I test whether the isolation-violence relationship differs by gender. Findings demonstrate that socially disinterested youth show a greater capacity for violent behavior, but other types of marginalized youth showed no difference in violence when compared to sociable youth. Results also suggest that some types of strain moderate the isolation-violence relationship and that these patterns are gendered.

Seventeen teens (mean age = 11.71. SD = 1.26) who had experiences in playing online games participated in the focus group interviews of Study 2. Their responses were collected in order to develop comprehensive scales to measure cyber-victimization and cyberbullying, so as to better understand the differences between online and real life friendship and also to reveal the reasons behind playing online games. Studies 3 and 4 were based on the same sample of six hundred twenty-six grade 5 and 6 students (mean age =10.81, SD = .83), but with different purposes. In Study 3, two scales, both ultimately (following test analyses) comprised of eight items were developed for measuring cyber-victimization and cyberbullying, They demonstrated satisfactory reliabilities and criterion validities. In Study 4, the relative quality of best friendship in online games versus in real life, as well as the relative importance of friendship, victimization, and bullying in real life and in online games in relation to early adolescents' overall psychosocial adjustment were examined. Online victimization and online bullying were negatively related to psychological well-being of early adolescents. After controlling demographics, computer gaming habits, school victimization and real life friendship, online victimization still significantly and negatively explained additional variance in friendship satisfaction, while online friendship still positively and significantly explained additional variance in social competence, friendship satisfaction, self esteem and life satisfaction after demographics, computer gaming habits, school victimization, and real life friendship were statistically controlled. Gender moderated the relationship between real life friendship and social competence and friendship satisfaction, but it did not moderate the relationship between online friendship and the other psychological constructs. This research demonstrated the theoretical and practical importance of investigating social experiences (both negative, i.e. being cyber-bullied, and positive, i.e. building up online friendship) in the online context. / The present research comprised four studies to investigate the relation of online game playing and correlates of three important aspects, namely friendship, victimization and bullying, of social development of Hong Kong Chinese grade 5 and 6 students. Comparisons of these correlates across two contexts, the real life and internet experiences, were also made. Four hundred ninety-four grade five and six students (mean age = 11.54, SD = .91) participated in Study 1. Average times spent on different types of different type of computer games and the importance of social functioning of online games were determined. Average time spent per day on Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs), solitary computer games, handheld video games e.g. NDS, PSP, and home video consoles (e.g., Wii) were 2.38 hours (SD =2.21), 1.66 hours (SD =1.86), 1.25 hours, (SD =1.54), and .67 hours (SD =1.15), respectively. Social functioning of online games was positively correlated with life satisfaction of early adolescents. / Leung, Nga Man. / Adviser: Catherine McBride-Chang. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 72-04, Section: B, page: . / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 109-119). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

Text in Afrikaans / Papalia, Olds en Feldman (2008:419) noem dat die woord "adolessensie" van die Latynse woord "adolescere" afkomstig is. Dit beteken "om te groei in volwassenheid". In hierdie geval word adolessensie gesien as ʼn proses eerder as ʼn spesifieke tydperk in ʼn individu se lewe. Hierdie studie fokus op die adolessent, in die besonder die vroeë adolessente dogter en haar psigo-sosiale ontwikkeling. Spesifieke navorsing word gedoen oor die verhoudingsprobleme wat by die vroeë adolessente dogter gedurende die psigo-sosiale stadium van vroeë adolessensie voorkom, en die moontlikheid van groepsterapie as terapeutiese intervensie. Die benutting van groepsterapie, in die konteks van vroeë adolessente dogters met portuurgroep-verhoudingsprobleme, het die navorser geïnteresseer, weens haar ondervinding met kinders en spesifiek vroeë adolessente dogters met verhoudingsprobleme. Dogters is meer betrokke by hul verhoudings, hulle is meer uitgesproke in terme van hul emosies en benodig emosionele ondersteuning van hul portuurgroep, meer dikwels as wat seuns doen (Papalia et al. 2008:398). Sue, Sue en Sue (2006:579) skryf die toename in groepsterapie toe aan die feit dat baie sielkundige probleme interpersoonlik en intrapersoonlik van aard is. Verhoudingsprobleme binne groepe word dikwels die beste hanteer binne ʼn groep. / Papalia et al. (2008:419) state that the word "adolescence" comes from the Latin word "adolescere". It means "to grow in maturity". In this case, adolescence is seen as a process rather than as a specific time period in an individual's life. This study focuses on the adolescent, and in particular the early adolescent girl and her psychosocial development. Specific research is done on the relationship problems that occur during the development of the psychosocial stage of early adolescent girls and possible therapeutic interventions with the problem. The utilisation of group therapy, in the context of early adolescent girls and peer-relationship problems, interests the researcher, because of her experience with children and specifically early adolescent girls who are prone to peer-relationship problems. Girls are more concerned with their relationships; they are more outspoken in terms of their emotions and seek emotional support from their peers more often than boys do (Papalia et al.2008:398). Sue et al.(2006:579) attributes the increase in group therapy to the fact that many psychological problems are interpersonal and intrapersonal in nature. Relationship problems in groups are often best handled within the group. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Voorligting)

This study examines whether aggression and prosocial behavior shape changes in perceptions of friendship quality within stable reciprocal best friend dyads. A longitudinal Actor-Partner Interdependence Model was used to investigate whether individual characteristics predict changes 6 to 12 weeks later in perceptions of relationship support and negativity. The sample included 76 same-sex dyads drawn from classrooms in grades 4 (M = 9.48 years) through 6 (M= 11.43 years) in two public schools in the United States. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.A.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2015. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

Text in Afrikaans / Papalia, Olds en Feldman (2008:419) noem dat die woord "adolessensie" van die Latynse woord "adolescere" afkomstig is. Dit beteken "om te groei in volwassenheid". In hierdie geval word adolessensie gesien as ʼn proses eerder as ʼn spesifieke tydperk in ʼn individu se lewe. Hierdie studie fokus op die adolessent, in die besonder die vroeë adolessente dogter en haar psigo-sosiale ontwikkeling. Spesifieke navorsing word gedoen oor die verhoudingsprobleme wat by die vroeë adolessente dogter gedurende die psigo-sosiale stadium van vroeë adolessensie voorkom, en die moontlikheid van groepsterapie as terapeutiese intervensie. Die benutting van groepsterapie, in die konteks van vroeë adolessente dogters met portuurgroep-verhoudingsprobleme, het die navorser geïnteresseer, weens haar ondervinding met kinders en spesifiek vroeë adolessente dogters met verhoudingsprobleme. Dogters is meer betrokke by hul verhoudings, hulle is meer uitgesproke in terme van hul emosies en benodig emosionele ondersteuning van hul portuurgroep, meer dikwels as wat seuns doen (Papalia et al. 2008:398). Sue, Sue en Sue (2006:579) skryf die toename in groepsterapie toe aan die feit dat baie sielkundige probleme interpersoonlik en intrapersoonlik van aard is. Verhoudingsprobleme binne groepe word dikwels die beste hanteer binne ʼn groep. / Papalia et al. (2008:419) state that the word "adolescence" comes from the Latin word "adolescere". It means "to grow in maturity". In this case, adolescence is seen as a process rather than as a specific time period in an individual's life. This study focuses on the adolescent, and in particular the early adolescent girl and her psychosocial development. Specific research is done on the relationship problems that occur during the development of the psychosocial stage of early adolescent girls and possible therapeutic interventions with the problem. The utilisation of group therapy, in the context of early adolescent girls and peer-relationship problems, interests the researcher, because of her experience with children and specifically early adolescent girls who are prone to peer-relationship problems. Girls are more concerned with their relationships; they are more outspoken in terms of their emotions and seek emotional support from their peers more often than boys do (Papalia et al.2008:398). Sue et al.(2006:579) attributes the increase in group therapy to the fact that many psychological problems are interpersonal and intrapersonal in nature. Relationship problems in groups are often best handled within the group. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Voorligting)

Online adolescent friendships and social networking among adolescents are current phenomena that have emerged, and exploded, as part of the digital age and the vast development of communication technologies. The primary aim of this study was to gain knowledge and understanding regarding the nature and quality of online friendships and social networking among adolescents. A sequential explanatory mixed method design, was put to use for the purpose of this study. The quantitative data was collected first in the form of a short survey, by utilising a self-developed questionnaire to obtain a general overview of the social network practices and the forming and maintaining of online friendships among adolescents. Twenty five participants took part in the survey. This study was followed by a qualitative study in the form of interviews, to clarify, elaborate and explain the quantitative findings. Five information rich participants were interviewed. The findings of the empirical investigation revealed that adolescents, being part of the Net Generation, base their concept of socialising with friends on digital and communication technology, especially cell phones. They are connected to their friends 24 hours a day. The sense of safety and support they experience through this constant connectedness strengthens their self-esteem, self-confidence and self-worth and contributes to their identity formation. It is therefore recommended that parents and educators should accept that adolescents live in a virtual world and their new way of socialising, needs to be acknowledged. Parents and educators should adjust accordingly, by getting educated in this field themselves. The Net Generation is a generation who focuses on relationships and collaboration through technology and this should be exploited by anybody who has contact or interacts with the adolescent of today. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Guidance and Counselling)

Online adolescent friendships and social networking among adolescents are current phenomena that have emerged, and exploded, as part of the digital age and the vast development of communication technologies. The primary aim of this study was to gain knowledge and understanding regarding the nature and quality of online friendships and social networking among adolescents. A sequential explanatory mixed method design, was put to use for the purpose of this study. The quantitative data was collected first in the form of a short survey, by utilising a self-developed questionnaire to obtain a general overview of the social network practices and the forming and maintaining of online friendships among adolescents. Twenty five participants took part in the survey. This study was followed by a qualitative study in the form of interviews, to clarify, elaborate and explain the quantitative findings. Five information rich participants were interviewed. The findings of the empirical investigation revealed that adolescents, being part of the Net Generation, base their concept of socialising with friends on digital and communication technology, especially cell phones. They are connected to their friends 24 hours a day. The sense of safety and support they experience through this constant connectedness strengthens their self-esteem, self-confidence and self-worth and contributes to their identity formation. It is therefore recommended that parents and educators should accept that adolescents live in a virtual world and their new way of socialising, needs to be acknowledged. Parents and educators should adjust accordingly, by getting educated in this field themselves. The Net Generation is a generation who focuses on relationships and collaboration through technology and this should be exploited by anybody who has contact or interacts with the adolescent of today. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Guidance and Counselling)

Text in Afrikaans / Die doel van opvoeding is om die kind tot volwassenheid te lei. 'n Volwasse persoon is iemand wat homself ken, 'n inherente sin virwaardes navolg, sedelik selfstandige besluite kan neem en verantwoordelikheid kan aanvaar. Groepdruk belemmer die verwerwing van bogenoemde eienskappe by die adolessent en bemoeilik gevolglik sy opvoeding. Daarom stel opvoedkundiges toenemend meer in groepdruk as fenomeen belang. Die doeI van die ondersoek was om 'n meetinstrument te ontwikkel waarmee adolessente geidentifiseer kan word wat groepdruk moeilik hanteer. Daarbenewens was dit oak die doel om die belangrikste veranderlikes wat verband hou met groepdruk te identifiseer. 'n Literatuurstudie is onderneem met die doel om die fenomeen groepdruk te analiseer, ondersoek in te stel na die meetbaarheid van groepdruk en vas te stel watter faktore met groepdruk verband hou. 'n Meetinstrument is ontwikkel met die doel om groepdruk te meet (betroubaarheidskoeffisient : 0,86). 'n Empiriese ondersoek is uitgevoerwaarby 452 hoerskool adolessente (234 seuns en 228 dogters) betrek is. Benewens groepdruk is verskeie veranderlikes soos verhouding met ouers, verhouding met maats, selfbeeld, waardes, intelligensie en persoonlikheid ook gemeet. Biografiese gegewens soos geslag, ouderdom, demerietes, buitemuurse aktiwiteite en posisie in gesin is ingesluit. Uit die empiriese ondersoek blyk dit dat : • groepdruk 'n afname toon en verander vanaf graad 8 na graad 12; • selfbeeld, ouderdom, populariteit en verhouding met maats as die vernaamste veranderlikes wat met groepdruk verband hou, beskou kan word. Die implikasies van die bevindinge in die literatuurstudie en in die empiriese ondersoek is bespreek met die doel om ouers en onderwysers met riglyne te voorsien wat hulle kan aanwend om adolessente minder kwesbaar vir groepdruk te maak. / The aim of education is to guide the child towards adulthood. An adult is expected to know himself, follow an inherent sense of values, make moral decisions independently and accept responsibility. Group pressure hampers the attainment of the above characteristics during adolescence and therefore makes education problematic. For this reason educationists are taking a growing interest in group pressure as a phenomenon. The aim of this study was to develop a measuring instrument to identify adolescents who find it difficult to deal with group pressure. In addition it was also the aim to determine the most important variables which relate to group pressure. A literature study was undertaken in order to analyse group pressure as a phenomenon, to analyse the measurability of group pressure and to determine which factors relate to group pressure. An instrument was developed to measure group pressure (reliability coefficient: 0,86). An empiricalinvestigation was carried out involving 452 high school adolescents (234 boys and 228 girls). In addition to group pressure, several variables were measured such as the individual's relationship with parents and friends, his self-concept, values, intelligence and personality. Biographical information such as gender, age, number of demerits, extra mural activities and birth order was collated. From the empirical investigation it seems that • group pressure shows a decline from Grade 8 to 12; • self concept, age, popularity and relationship with friends can be considered the most important variables relating to group pressure. The implications of the findings in the literature study and empirical investigation were discussed with the aim to provide parents and teachers with guidelines which they can apply to make adolescents less vulnerable to group pressure. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Sielkundige Opvoedkunde)