none

Fullerenes have been the focus of significant research effort and curiosity for their unique physicochemical and photochemical properties since their discovery almost 30 years ago. C60 fullerene in particular has received tremendous attention, due to its prevalence in fullerene production and chemical stability. While ambitious prospective applications for C60 have been ubiquitous, the extremely hydrophobic nature of fullerenes and consequent aggregation at the nano scale has hampered many endeavors. Researchers, therefore, have turned their attention to the functionalization of fullerenes to add hydrophilic moieties for applications in aqueous media. It is known that functionalizing the C60 cage alters its innate physicochemical and photochemical properties, but how these changes translate to the properties of C60 aggregates, often termed nC60, is not well understood. Functionalized fullerenes present an intriguing environmental dichotomy. On the one hand C60 has excellent potential as a novel singlet oxygen producing disinfection tool, and on the other the potential toxicological effects of functionalized C60 are largely unknown. With thousands of possible functionalities, a mechanistic understanding of the effects of functionalization is essential. To explore the effects of functionalization on fullerene photochemistry in relevant systems, three types of functional groups were selected and obtained each in series of mono-, bis-, and tris-functionalized forms. Two functionalities contrasted the presence or lack of a quaternary ammonium group and the third was the sterically bulkier phenyl-C61 butyic acid methylester, which is commonly used in polymer photovoltaics. The fullerenes were characterized for innate photochemical properties in organic solvents using UV/Vis, laser flash photolysis, and photochemical degradation experiments. Aqueous aggregates of each derivative were additionally characterized for their physical and chemical properties by dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. All derivatives were photoactive when dispersed molecularly in organic solvents, but only the cationic fullerenes showed significant photoactivity as aqueous aggregates. Differences in aggregate size or crystallinity were unable to explain the differential photoactivity between derivatives, contrary to two established hypotheses. Antimicrobial properties were probed using innate toxicity tests and photoinactivation experiments. Again, only the cationic fullerenes were found to exert photochemical action towards Escherichia coli or MS2 bacteriophages. The cationic fullerenes were also innately toxic to E. coli due to the presence of quaternary ammonium moieties. In order to establish a mechanistic understanding of the photochemistry of functionalized C60 aggregates, simulations of the molecular dynamics (MD) were employed and compared with empirical evidences. Simulations provided theoretical values for C60-O2, C60-C60, and C60-H2O interactions for each derivative. Trends observed in the MD results were compared to photochemical characterizations as described above and Raman spectroscopic measurements of C60’s effect on localized water structure. High resolution transmission electron microscopy was used to provide empirical evidence of the C60-C60 interactions. Overall, fullerene aggregate photochemistry is likely driven by aggregate morphology and by intermolecular interactions between fullerenes, water, and O2.

Ο καρκίνος, αποτελεί στις μέρες μας μία από τις πιο συνήθεις ασθένειες καθότι προσβάλει ένα μεγάλο μέρος του παγκόσμιου πληθυσμού, ανεξαρτήτου ηλικίας και γι αυτό το λόγο, η θεραπεία του αποτελεί μία από τις μεγαλύτερες προκλήσεις της επιστημονικής κοινότητας. Η χορήγηση διαφόρων φαρμάκων έως τώρα, για την αντιμετώπισή του, έχει σαν αποτέλεσμα την προσβολή τόσο των καρκινικών, όσο και των υγειών κυττάρων. Κατά συνέπεια, προκαλούνται ποικίλες παρενέργειες στον ανθρώπινο οργανισμό, ορισμένες πολύ σοβαρές που δεν επιτρέπουν την χορήγηση θεραπευτικών δόσεων. Η νανοτεχνολογία μπαίνει δυναμικά στη μάχη κατά του καρκίνου. Ο σχεδιασμός και η χρήση συστημάτων με μέγεθος στην νανοκλίμακα, προσφέρει νέους τρόπους για τον εντοπισμό, τη διάγνωση και τη θεραπεία του καρκίνου από τα πρώτα κιόλας στάδια και με ελάχιστες παρενέργειες. Τα νανοσωματίδια μακράς κυκλοφορίας (stealth nanoparticles) παρέχουν ένα νέο τρόπο χορήγησης των αντικαρκινικών φαρμάκων, λειτουργώντας ως φορείς που εξαγγειώνονται στην περιοχή του όγκου, επιτρέποντας με αυτόν τον τρόπο την εκλεκτική διάθεση του φαρμάκου που περιέχουν στα καρκινικά κύτταρα. Τα σωματίδια αυτά, έχουν την ικανότητα να τροποποιούνται κατάλληλα, ώστε να είναι βιοσυμβατά και να μπορούν να προσκολλούνται στα καρκινικά κύτταρα ή στο μικροπεριβάλλον τους, λειτουργώντας έτσι σαν φορείς στη στοχευμένη χορήγηση αντικαρκινικών φαρμάκων, μειώνοντας την τοξικότητα στους φυσιολογικούς ιστούς. Οι νανοφορείς που έχουν μελετηθεί μέχρι σήμερα, εμφανίζουν σημαντικά προβλήματα, όπως δομική αστάθεια, δομική ετερογένεια και ελλειπή έλεγχο μεγέθους και σχήματος. Κατά συνέπεια, υπάρχει μία συνεχής ανάγκη ανάπτυξης νέων νανοφορέων ή βελτιστοποίηση των ήδη μελετημένων, προκειμένου να μπορούν να αξιοποιηθούν στην κλινική πράξη. Τα φουλλερένια (C60), έχουν κινήσει το ενδιαφέρον των επιστημόνων σε πολλούς τομείς της έρευνας, συμπεριλαμβανομένου της θεραπείας κατά του καρκίνου. Η βιολογική τους σταθερότητα, το μικρό μέγεθος και η ικανότητα πρόσδεσης σε αυτά διαφόρων παραγόντων, όπως πολυμερή, βιοδραστικές ουσίες και μονάδες στόχευσης τα κατέστησε ικανά να λειτουργούν σαν νανοφορείς στη στοχευμένη χορήγηση φαρμάκων. Το μόνο τους μειονέκτημα είναι η μειωμένη διαλυτότητά τους στο νερό, το οποίο μπορεί να αντιμετωπιστεί με την πρόσδεση σε αυτά υδρόφιλων πολυμερών, όπως είναι η πολυαιθυλενογλυκόλη (PEG). Στην παρούσα εργασία, παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα της σύνθεσης ενός συζεύγματος πεγκυλιωμένου μορίου φουλλερενίου (C60) με το αντικαρκινικό φάρμακο δοξορουμπικίνη, καθώς και η in vitro αξιολόγηση του τελικού προϊόντος. Στόχος είναι η αύξηση της αποτελεσματικότητας και η μείωση της τοξικότητας του φαρμάκου, μέσω στοχευμένης μεταφοράς στον καρκινικό όγκο. Ένα πεγκυλιωμένο σύζευγμα φουλλερενίου (C60) με δύο μόρια δοξορουμπικίνης (DOX2-C60-PEG, ένωση 4), συντέθηκε επιτυχώς και χαρακτηρίστηκε πλήρως μέσω 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, IR, UV και TGA. Η δραστικότητα του τελικού προϊόντος, καθώς και ενός ήδη συντεθέντος συζεύγματος με ένα μόριο φαρμάκου DOX-C60-PEG (ένωση 2b), αλλά και του ενδιαμέσου συζεύγματος C60-PEG (ένωση 7) και της υδροχλωρικής δοξορουμπικίνης (DOX•HCl), ενάντια στον καρκίνο ελέγχθηκε in vitro σε καρκινικές σειρές κυττάρων μαστού MCF-7. Τα συζεύγματα DOX2-C60-PEG (4) και DOX-C60-PEG (2b) εμφάνισαν ικανοποιητική δράση αναστολής του πολλαπλασιασμού των κυττάρων, συγκρίσιμη με αυτήν του ελεύθερου φαρμάκου, ύστερα από σχετικά μακρό χρόνο επώασης. Μελέτη εντοπισμού της DOX χρησιμοποιώντας μικροσκοπία φθορισμού έδειξε ότι το φάρμακο στην περίπτωση των συζευγμάτων εντοπίζεται πολύ πιο αργά στο πυρήνα του κυττάρου, όπου και μπορεί να εξασκήσει φαρμακολογική του δράση, σε σύγκριση με την ελεύθερη DΟΧ. Αυτό σε συνδυασμό με την αργή απελευθέρωση του φαρμάκου από τα συζεύγματα, όπως έδειξαν πειράματα αποδέσμευσης σε προϊόν λύσης των MCF-7 καρκινικών κυττάρων, ερμηνεύει την συγκριτικά αργή εμφάνιση δράσης στην περίπτωση των συζευγμάτων. Συμπερασματικά στην εργασία συντέθηκαν επιτυχώς φουλλερενικά συζεύγματα δοξορουμπικίνης τα οποία είχαν ικανοποιητική αντικαρκινική δραστικότητα έναντι καρκινικών κυττάρων ανθρώπινης καρκινικής σειράς. τα αποτελέσματα δικαιολογούν περαιτέρω μελέτες εφαρμογής του φουλλερενίου ως νανοφορέα για την χορήγηση τόσο δοξορουμπικίνης, όσο και άλλων φαρμάκων κατά του καρκίνου. / Until now, the administration of various drugs for its cure, affect both cancer and normal cells. Thus, many serious side effects are caused on the human body, which do not permit the administration of therapeutic doses of potent anticancer drugs. Nanotechnology has entered dynamically”in the battle” against cancer. The design and the use of multifunctional nanoparticulte systems, provides new ways to detect, diagnose and treat cancer in the earliest stages and with minimal side effects. They can extravagate at tumor site, allowing direct drug access selectively to cancer cells. These particles have the capacity to be suitably modified in order to be biocompatible and can be attached to tumor cells or their microenvironment, acting as carriers in targeted delivery of anticancer drugs, reducing toxicity to normal tissues. Drug nanocarriers explored to date, suffer from inherent limitations, including instability, structural heterogeneity and poor control over size and shape. Therefore, there is a continuing need to produce new or optimized, already studied nanocarriers, in order to render possible the use of such advanced nanomedicines in the clinic. Fullerenes (C60), have attracted considerable interest in many fields of research, including the treatment of cancer. Because of their biological stability, their small size, and their ability to be suitably modified, attaching on them biological modifiers and drugs, they can be used as nanocarriers in targeted drug delivery. The main drawback of these carbon particles with regard to their biomedical applications, is their poor solubility to water. We can overcome this problem by attaching on fullerene particles hydrophilic polymers, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG). In the present work, the results of the synthesis and the in vitro biological evaluation of a pegylated fullerene conjugate with the potent anticancer drug Doxorubicin are represented. The main goal is to increase efficacy and reduce toxicity of doxorubicin, through targeted delivery to tumors, by conjugating the drug to pegylated fullerenes. A pegylated fullerene-doxorubicin conjugate with two molecules of drug per fullerene particle (DOX2-C60-PEG, compound 4) has successfully been synthesized and was fully characterized by 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, IR, UV and TGA. The anticancer activity of conjugates DOX2-C60-PEG (4), DOX-C60-PEG (compound 2b, with one DOX molecule per fullerene particle), and conjugate C60-PEG (control compound 7) and doxorubicin hydrochloride ((DOX•HCl), was evaluated in MCF-7 cancer cells lines. The fullerene-doxorubicin conjugates (2b, 4) exhibited satisfactory anticancer activity (inhibiting cancer cells proliferation), which became comparable to the activity of free drug at relatively long incubation times. In accordance with the relatively slow effect of DOX-C60-PEG conjugates on cells viability, DOX localization studies using fluorescence microscopy indicated that the drug is much more slowly localized in cell nucleus, where the drug can exert its pharmacological action, in the case of conjugates compared to free DOX. In conclusion pegylated fullerene-doxorubicin conjugates were successfully synthesized. These DOX-C60-PEG conjugates exhibited comparable, but with a delayed onset, to free DOX anticancer activity against human cancer cell lines. The results obtained justify further investigation of the potential of these conjugates as anticancer nanomedicines.

En este trabajo abarcamos el estudio de la estructura electrónica de una serie de fulerenos denominados fulerenos endoédricos, así como también su reactividad. En este trabajo de tesis previo, se define lo que se conoce como la regla del gap (LUMO-3)-(LUMO-4), la cual indica que aquellas cajas fulerénicas vacías cuyo gap entre el tercer y cuarto orbitales desocupados sea mayor grande tendrán la capacidad de aceptar la transferencia de seis electrones desde un clúster metálico. En el capítulo 3, la regla del gap (LUMO-3)-(LUMO-4) ha sido extendida para aquellas cajas fulerénicas de hasta 100 átomos de carbono. También se ha analizado la reactividad exoédrica del M3N@D5h-C80 en una reacción de cicloadición de Diels-Alder con 1, 3-butadieno sobre los diferentes tipos de enlaces de la caja D5h-C80. En el capítulo 4 estudiamos la estructura electrónica de los fulerenos endoédricos con carburos metálicos (M2C2@C82). Se han estudiado seis isómeros de Sc2C2@C82, confirmando que su estructura electrónica se puede explicar de manera sencilla con el modelo iónico (clúster)4+@(caja)4–, adoptando el carburo metalico diferentes orientaciones dentro de la caja de C82 . En el capítulo 5 hemos estudiado la estructura y propiedades electrónicas de una otras dos famílias de fulerenos endoédricos: la de los óxideos de escandio y la de los sulfuros de escandio. Por último hemos estudiado las propiedades electroquímicas de una serie de fulerenos endoédricos con diferentes clústeres (capítulo 6). Los orbitales frontera y las propiedades redox de Sc3N@C80 son diferentes cuando son comparados con fulerenos endoédricos de metales más electro positivos (Gd e Y). / We have extended the application of the general rule for the stabilization of nitride EMFs proposed by Campanera et al. to IPR carbon cages of dimensions up to C100. This simple rule, based on the formal transfer of six electrons from the cluster to the carbon cage, can be seen as an empirical rule that is able to predict the most abundant cage isomer for all the nitride EMFs known to date. Some EMF with M2 clusters, however, seem to escape this simple rule. We have proposed six large carbon cages (from C92 to C100) with sizeable (LUMO-4)–(LUMO-3) gaps and achievable energies as candidates for encapsulating metal nitride units or M2 clusters on condition that the formal six-electron transfer and other factors are accomplished. We have confirmed that the ionic model based on the formal transfer of four electrons from the encapsulated M2C2 carbide to the carbon cage is valid for the M2C2@C82 family. We have observed that the internal metal- carbide cluster is able to rotate inside the carbon cage. Using the aforesaid ionic model we have understood the higher stability of M2C2@C82 (C3v:8) when compared to carbide endohedrals with other IPR C82 isomers. The electrochemical properties for a series of EMFs have been studied theoretically. Analogously to the neutral M3N@Ih-C80 (M = Sc and Y) systems, rotation of the M3N unit inside the fullerene cage is predicted for the neutral, oxidized and reduced states of all the nitride EMFs with IPR cages studied through this work (from Sc3N@D5h-C80 to La3N@C96).

No description available.

Water-soluble fullerene containing polymers comprising of poly(2-(dimethylamino) ethyl methacrylate)-fullerene (PDMAEMA-C60) with targeting moieties, poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate)-C60 (POEGMA-C60), nanocrystalline cellulose-fullerene (NCC-C60) and NCC-C60-POEGMA were synthesized and their solution properties were investigated. PDMAEMA-C60 with galactose targeting moiety was prepared by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and atom transfer radical addition (ATRA) processes. The self-assembly of galactose functionalized PDMAEMA-C60 structure in aqueous solutions was investigated using dynamic light scattering (DLS) at different pHs. A smaller hydrodynamic radius (Rh) was observed at pH 10 than at pH 3 due to electrostatic repulsion at low pH values. In addition, free PDMAEMA chains induced the demicellization of self-assembled nanostructures caused by the formation of charge transfer complex between PDMAEMA and C60. A well-defined poly(di(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate–stat-oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate)-block-poly(di(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate ((PMEO2MA-stat-POEGMA300)-b-PMEO2) was successfully synthesized at room temperature via a two-step ATRP process. The block copolymer exhibited two thermal transitions at ~ 30 and 45 oC, which was believed to be associated with the formation of micelles and larger aggregates. The Rh of the aggregates increased from 47 to 90 nm, the aggregation number increased from 76 to ~9800 and Rg/Rh increased from 0.75 to 1.2 within the temperature range of 34 to 45oC. Well-defined statistical (PMEO2MA-stat-POEGMA300)-C60 was synthesized via ATRP and ATRA. The lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of (PMEO2MA-stat-POEGMA300)-C60 increased with methanol content in water, exhibiting lower LCSTs than PMEO2MA-stat-POEGMA300 for all methanol/water compositions. Higher critical micelle concentration (CMC) and larger spherical micelles were observed for (PMEO2MA-stat-POEGMA300)-C60 with increasing methanol content. The Rh of the micelles remained constant at temperature below the LCST and increased dramatically at temperature greater than the LCST, and (Rg/Rh) increased from ~ 0.75 to ~ 1.0. Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) was modified with water-soluble C60-(β-cyclodextrin) and (PMEO2MA-stat-POEGMA300)-C60) through a radical coupling reaction. NCC-C60-(PMEO2MA-stat-POEGMA300) possessed thermal responsive behavior in water and ~3.5 oC hysteresis associated with the heating/cooling cycles. No observable damage to NCC occurred during the radical coupling reaction as determined by TEM. NCC-C60-(β-cyclodextrin) possessed a similar thermal degradation behavior as NCC except it possessed a broader temperature range. Both NCC-fullerene systems demonstrated a radical scavenging activity when screened with the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). In addition, the drug loading and delivery using PDMAEMA-C60 with targeting moieties was explored. Two model drugs, namely fluorescein and pyrene were employed to evaluate the location of drug in the self-assembled structure of PDMAEMA-C60. It was found that the hydrophobic drugs were partitioned between the PDMAEMA shells and the hydrophobic fullerene cores. The drug delivery profiles indicated that PDMAEMA-C60 is an efficient drug carrier, however, it was cytotoxic to cells. The gene transfection efficacy of PDMAEMA-C60 to different cell lines was investigated and the results demonstrated that PDMAEMA-C60 exhibited good gene transfection performance. However, the targeting selectivity to liver cells cannot be determined in both cases. This study demonstrates that nanostructures of stimuli-responsive fullerene polymers can be controlled and manipulated by changing the external environments. Several potential applications, such as in drug and gene delivery, and free radical scavenging can be further explored.

Commercial production and use of carbon-based nanomaterials will inevitably lead to the release of nanoscale compounds into to the environment. While fullerene nanoparticles, such as nC60 and multi-wall nanotubes (MWNTs), exhibit toxicity to certain microbes and human cell lines, their transport and deposition in subsurface environments are largely unknown. In this study, nanoparticle transport experiments were conducted in one-dimensional columns packed with water-saturated glass beads, quartz sands, or natural soil. Results demonstrated that nC60 transport was strongly influenced by electrolyte species and concentration, as well as mean grain size and flow rate. The attachment of nC60 was largely irreversible, with introduction of pH 12 water required to detach substantial quantities of retained nC60. Measured nC60 breakthrough curves and retention profiles in quartz sands suggest that the retention of nC60 was primarily due to attachment in a first energy minimum and that clean-bed filtration theory alone was not sufficient to describe the experimental data. In the presence of stabilizing agents, including surfactant, fulvic and humic acids, significant enhancement of nC60 transport in quartz sands was observed. In two natural soils, Appling and Webster soil, complete retention of nC60 was observed, even after introducing up to 65 pore volumes of nC60 suspension. However, nC60 readily transported through Appling soil in the presence of surfactant. For MWNTs with a manufacture-reported (MR) length of 50 μm readily transported through sand columns and the retention of MWNTs at higher input concentrations increased with the MR length. The data also suggested MWNTs exhibited higher mobility in quartz sands than nC60 or single-wall nanotubes under similar chemical conditions. These findings advance our current understanding of fundamental processes governing nanoparticle transport and retention in porous media and provide reliable experimental data for the development of nanoparticle transport models.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Univ., 2001. / Härtill 10 uppsatser.

Techn. Univ., Diss.--Dresden, 2001. / Literaturverz. S. [126] - [128].

Stuttgart, Univ., Diss., 2004.