The airway epithelium plays a central role in respiratory physiology through its transport and immunological functions. Our previous study suggested that P2Y receptors are expressed in airway epithelia and play a significant role in regulating transepithelial ion transport. P2Y receptors belong to the family of purinergic receptors, which can be stimulated by nucleotides such as UTP and UDP. P2Y receptors are G protein-coupled receptors and classically signal through G[subscript q], resulting in an increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]ᵢ) and thereby in the activation of Ca²⁺-dependent ion channels and downstream signalling pathway(s). Furthermore, P2Y receptors are involved in asthmatic inflammation. / Estrogen (or E₂) is an important hormone in human physiology. In addition to the classical nuclear hormone receptors ERα and ERβ, a novel estrogen receptor, G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER), was recently identified and found to be involved in both rapid signalling and transcriptional regulations. The action of GPER is unclear, but it has been implicated in mediating anti-inflammatory responses. / In our experiments, both human bronchial epithelial cell line, 16HBE14o-, and primary normal human bronchial epithelial cells expressed GPER at mRNA and protein levels, as demonstrated by RT-PCR and western blotting, respectively. ERα and ERβ expression were also detected at mRNA and protein level. Expression of GPER receptors was localized in the human bronchial epithelial cells by immunofluorescence staining and western blotting of fractionated cell lysates. / [Ca²⁺]ᵢ induced by nucleotides were monitored by calcium imaging technique using MetaFluor fluorescence ratio imaging system. Stimulation of epithelial cells with E₂ or with the specific agonist of GPER, G1, rapidly attenuated a UDP-, UTP- or ATPyS- evoked increase in [Ca²⁺]ᵢ in both 16HBE14o- cell line and primary cells. This inhibitory effect of E₂ and G1 were concentration dependent, while this effect was reversed by GPER specific antagonist, G15. To examine the effect of E₂ and G1 on UDP-activated intracellular Ca²⁺ release and influx, the epithelia were exposed to nominally Ca²⁺ -free solution in the presence or absence of G1 or E₂, and then stimulated with UDP. Subsequently, Ca²⁺ was added to the perfusate. Both E₂ and G1 could inhibit UDP-induced Ca²⁺ release. However, only E₂ but not G1 could inhibit UDP-induced Ca²⁺ influx. / E₂ or G1 inhibited the secretion of two pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin (IL)-6 or IL-8, in cells stimulated by different nucleotides or the cationic protein, poly-L-arginie, as quantified by ELISA. CFP-Epac-YPF, an Epac-based polypeptide FRET reporter was used to monitor the real-time cAMP changes in 16HBE14o- cells. Both G1 and E₂ induced an increase in cAMP production. The transepithelial chloride (Cl⁻) secretion was measured using short circuit current technique in cells grown on permeable support. Cl⁻ secretion induced by apical UDP was partially inhibited by G1 in a concentration dependent manner. / Our results provide the first evidence that human bronchial epithelia express GPER, which interact with the P2Y receptor-mediated calcium signalling pathway and cytokine secretion. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory role of GPER may be due to its opposing effect on the pro-inflammatory pathway activated by the P2Y receptors in inflamed airway epithelia. / 气道上皮具有调节运输以及参与免疫反应等功能，在呼吸生理学研究中有着十分关键的意义。我们曾经的研究发现P2Y受体在气道上皮中表达并调节上皮细胞离子运输过程。P2Y受体属于嘌呤受体，可被三磷酸尿苷（UTP），二磷酸尿苷（UDP）等核苷酸激活。同时，P2Y受体也是一类G蛋白偶联受体，可通过活化G[subscript q]蛋白调控细胞内钙离子浓度而激活钙依赖性离子通道及其他下游信号通路。此外P2Y受体还参与哮喘炎症的调控。 / 雌激素（或雌二醇，E₂）是人体一类十分重要的激素。除传统的核受体ERα与ERβ外，一类新型雌激素受体GPER已被发现和鉴定。GPER属于G蛋白偶联受体，可同时参与转录调控和非基因依赖的快速信号调节。尽管具体机理尚不明确，但研究发现GPER可介导抗炎症反应。 / 实验结果显示，在支气管上皮细胞株16HBE14o-和原代人支气管上皮细胞中GPER都被检测到基因和蛋白水平的表达。GPER在人支气管上皮细胞中的定位也通过免疫荧光染色（immunofluorescence）和亚细胞组分蛋白质印迹（western blot of fractionated cells）得到鉴定。 / 本研究中，荧光显微技术（fluorescence microscopy）被用于测定核苷酸介导的细胞内钙离子浓度（[Ca²⁺]ᵢ）。在16HBE14o- 和原代培养人支气管上皮细胞中，E₂和GPER特异性激动剂G1都可抑制核苷酸介导的 [Ca²⁺]ᵢ增加，且这种抑制作用呈浓度依赖。GPER特异性拮抗剂G15可抵消G1的抑制作用。进一步研究表明，E₂和G1都可抑制UTP诱导的胞内钙库释放，然而只有E₂抑制UTP诱导的胞外钙离子内流。 / 除钙离子调节外，E₂和G1还可抑制支气管上皮细胞中核苷酸或聚精氨酸（poly-L-arginine）刺激介导的两种促炎症细胞因子，白介素6（IL-6）和白介素8（IL-8）的分泌。酶联免疫法（ELISA）被用于细胞因子的定量。同时，CFP-Epac-YPF作为一类多肽荧光共振能量转移（FRET）探针被转染入16HBE14o- ，探测细胞内腺苷-3',5'-环化一磷酸（cAMP）的实时变化。结果显示在人支气管上皮细胞中E₂和G1都可引导cAMP生成。此外，我们使用短路电流（short-circuit current, Isc）技术测定单层上皮细胞的氯离子（Cl⁻）分泌，并发现人支气管上皮顶膜面UDP诱导的Cl⁻ 分泌可被G1部分抑制，且抑制效果呈浓度依赖。 / 本研究首次证明GPER表达于人支气管上皮, 且激活GPER对P2Y受体介导的钙离子信号通路以及细胞因子生成起到抑制作用。这些结果表明在气道炎症反应中，GPER可通过反向调节P2Y受体激活的促炎症作用，达到抗炎症的效果。 / Hao, Yuan. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2014. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 187-211). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on 03, November, 2016). / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only.

Introdução: A apneia do sono é condição prevalente e apresenta forte correlação com as principais causas de morbidade e mortalidade na sociedade ocidental. A perda do controle neuromotor proveniente de estágios mais profundos do sono está associada ao colapso faríngeo e a patogênese da apneia obstrutiva do sono (SAOS). A língua é implicada como principal protagonista na patogênese da obstrução das vias aéreas superiores (VAS) durante o sono. Não há farmacoterapia para SAOS. Novas tecnologias moleculares para controle neuronal através da inserção de um receptor de membrana geneticamente modificado, denominado Designer Receptor Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs [DREADDs], o qual pode ser ativado por uma droga inicialmente inerte, de alta especificdade, clozapina-n-oxide (CNO). Objetivos: 1) Modificar geneticamente os neurônios motores do núcleo do hipoglosso utilizando-se de DREADDs, o qual permite regular sua atividade; 2) Analisar a atividade do músculo genioglosso sob administração de CNO; 3) Desenvolver abordagens para rastreamento dos músculos protrusores e retratores da língua por marcadores retrógrados, injecção de subunidade B de toxina colérica (CTB-AF) e do vírus de pseudoraiva (PRV) 267 transportando um gene repórter, nos músculos efetores. Métodos: Receptores muscarínicos mutados em um vetor adenoviral associado (AAV) foram infundidos no núcleo do hipoglosso de camundongos via injeção esterotáxica bilateral. Após quatro semanas, período para expressão fenotípica, foram comparadas a atividade eletromiográfica do músculo genioglosso (EMGGG) em resposta a administração de ligante (CNO) versus solução salina. Em um segundo grupo foram realizadas infusões com vírus controle e comparação da EMGGG pré e pós infusão de CNO. Para rastreamento neural a CTB-AF foi injetado nos músculos protusores e retratores da língua e para expressão de Cre o vírus PRV-267 foi injetado no músculo genioglosso. A expressão dessas substâncias no núcleo do hipoglosso foi avaliada através de microscopia de fluorescência. Resultados: Dos dezoito camundongos injetados com DREADDs, dezesseis foram transfectados pelo vetor de AAV. Em camundongos onde o núcleo motor do hipoglosso foi corretamente atingido a EMGGG apresentou importante aumento após a administração de CNO. Em contraste, a atividade do genioglosso não apresentou alteração após a administração de soro fisiológico. Em três camundongos onde a transfecção ultrapassou os limites do núcleo foi observado arritmia respiratória após infusão do ligante. Todos animais infundidos com vírus controle foram adequadamente transfectados mas não apresentaram alteração eletromiográfica após a infusão de CNO. Foram diferenciados no núcleo do hipoglosso os neurônios motores da musculatura retratora e protusora da língua. A expressão intranuclear da enzima Cre-recombinase foi identificada no núcleo hipoglosso. Conclusão: A utilização de métodos quimiogenéticos para ativar grupos selecionados de neurônios motores em áreas cerebrais específicas representa técnica promissora para o estudo do controle neuromotor das VAS. Estes resultados sugerem que a terapia transgênica pode ser eficaz no tratamento da SAOS além de uma vasta gama de patologias que resultam de perturbações no controle neural das VAS. Através da manipulação das fibras musculares efetoras na língua foi possível a identificação do seu respectivo neurônio motor no núcleo do hipoglosso e induzi-lo a sintetizar uma enzima específica (Cre-recombinase) / Introduction: Sleep Apnea is a prevalent condition and strongly correlates with the major causes of morbidity and mortality in Western Society. The loss of motor input from deeper sleep stages is associated with pharyngeal collapsibility and the pathogenesis of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). The tongue plays a major role in the pathogenesis of upper airway (UA) obstruction during sleep. There is no pharmacotherapy for OSA. New molecular techniques allow to control neuronal function by inserting a genetically modified membrane receptor termed the Designer Receptor Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs [DREADDs] which can be activated by a highly specific and otherwise pharmacologically inert drug clozapine-N-oxide (CNO) Objectives: 1) To genetically modify the hypoglossal nucleus motor neurons using DREADDs, which allows to regulate their activity; 2) To analyze the genioglossal activity upon administration of CNO; 3) to develop novel approaches to targeting tongue protruders and retractors by retrograde tracers, cholera toxin subunit B (CTB-AF) and pseudorabies virus (PRV) 267 injection carrying a reporter gene into the effector muscles. Methods: Mutated muscarinic receptors in an adenoviral associated vector (AAV) were delivered to the hypoglossal nucleus via stereotactically bilateral injection. Four weeks after adenoviral delivery (expression period), responses in genioglossal electromyography (EMGGG) activity to intraperitoneal administration of CNO ligand vs. Saline (control) were compared in mice. In a second group, control-virus was infused and genioglossus muscle EMGGG was compared before and after CNO infusion. For neuronal tracing CTB-AF was injected into the protrusor and retractor muscles of the tongue and for Cre induction PRV-267 virus was injected in the genioglossus muscle. Expression of these substances in the hypoglossal nucleus were evaluated by fluorescence histology. Results: Of eighteen DREADDs injected mice, sixteen were transfected with AAV vector. After CNO administration EMGGG activity increased in mice where the hypoglossal motor nucleus was correctly targeted. In contrast, genioglossal activity was not augmented following saline administration. In three mice where transfection surpassed the nucleus limits, breathing arrhythmia was observed following ligand infusion. All animals infused with control virus were adequately transfected but did not present electromyographic change following CNO infusion. The motor neurons of the rectractor and protrusor musculature of the tongue were well differentiated in the hypoglossal nucleus. Intranuclear expression of Cre recombinase enzyme was identified in the hypoglossal nucleus. Conclusion: Utilizing chemogenetic methods to activate motor neuron groups in selected brain areas show promise to UA neuromotor control, and suggest that transgenic therapy may be effective in treating OSA and a wide range of pathologies that result in disturbances of UA neural control. By manipulating the effector muscle fibers of the tongue, it was possible to identify its respective motor neuron in the hypoglossal nucleus and to induce synthesis of a specific enzyme (Cre recombinase)

Este estudo visou observar os efeitos plásticos induzidos pelo exercício a curto prazo em regiões motoras do encéfalo de ratos. Observou-se a expressão das subunidades GluR1 e GluR2/3. Os animais foram divididos em grupos de: 3 dias(COR3), 7 dias(COR7) e 15 dias(COR15); e um grupo controle(CONT). Empregaram-se as técnicas de imuno-histoquímica e immunoblotting. A expressão de GluR1 no cerebelo, demonstrou um decréscimo em COR3. No hipocampo houve uma queda na expressão em COR3(40%), retornando aos níveis basais em COR7. No córtex cerebral observou-se uma queda da expressão com máxima queda em COR7(52%), retornando à expressão basal em COR15. O estriado não sofreu alterações na expressão de GluR1 ao longo dos primeiros 7 dias, tendo um aumento em COR15(90%). A expressão de GluR2/3 não foi alterada, exceto no cerebelo, onde houve um decréscimo em dois momentos distintos, COR3(55%) e COR15(25%), retornando à expressão basal em COR7. Os nossos dados revelam que o exercício físico a curto prazo foi capaz de promover alterações plásticas ao longo do treinamento. / This study aimed at analyzing the plastic effects of the short-term exercise upon the rat motor area. We check the expression of GluR1 and GluR2/3. We divided into 3 experimental groups based on duration of exercise: 3 days(COR3), 7 days(COR7), and 15 days(COR15); and a control group(CONT). The experimental animals were subjected to a treadmill exercise protocol. The brains were subjected to the techniques of immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting. In the cerebellum, there was a decrease for COR3(17%). In the hippocampus, there was a decrease of the GluR1 expression for COR3 (40%). In the cerebral cortex there was a drop of GluR1 expression for COR3 and COR7(52%). In the striatum, there was no change of GluR1 expression during the first seven days, with a increase for COR15(90%). The GluR2/3 expression did not change in any brain structure analyzed, except in the cerebellum, where there was a significant decrease for two distinct groups, COR3(55%) and COR15(25%). Our data show that short-term physical exercise was able to promote plastic changes during training.

O TSPO (Translocator protein 18 KDa) é uma proteína intracelular localizada na membrana mitocondrial externa, mas também na membrana citoplasmática, e no núcleo. O TSPO está envolvido na biossíntese de esteroides, proliferação celular, apoptose, estresse oxidativo, e na modulação da inflamação, principalmente no sistema nervoso central, onde a proteína é considerada um marcador da neuroinflamação. Os neutrófilos representam células-chave no processo inflamatório sendo as primeiras células a chegarem no foco inflamatório onde exercem atividades fagocíticas, secretórias e microbicidas. O presente trabalho investigou os efeitos de diferentes ligantes de TSPO Diazepam, Ro5-4864 (agonistas parciais) e PK-11195 (antagonista) na ativação dos neutrófilos in vitro focando na via de ativação do Toll-like receptor (TLR) e de receptores transmembranas ligados a proteína G (GPCR). Neutrófilos obtidos da cavidade peritoneal de camundongos BalbC machos quatro horas após injeção do glicogênio de ostra (1%), foram tratados in vitro com meio de cultura, veículo, Diazepam, Ro5-4864, PK-11195 (10, 100, e 1000 nM), e estimulados ou não com Lipopolissacarídeo (LPS) ou Leucotrieno B4 (LTB4). Foram avaliados em condições basais e após estímulo: a expressão de TSPO e de moléculas de adesão por citometria de fluxo; a migração pelo ensaio de quimiotaxia em placa; a produção de citocinas e do óxido nítrico por ELISA e pela reação de Griess, respectivamente; e finalmente, a geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio por espectrofotômetro de fluorescência. Os resultados obtidos mostram que o TSPO é expresso em neutrófilos em condições basais, e que os estímulos inflamatórios com LPS ou LTB4 não alteram essa expressão. Os ligantes de TSPO não afetam as funções de neutrófilos ativados pelo LPS, salvo a acentuação da geração de espécies reativas (ROS) observada com Ro5-4864 em células estimuladas com LPS. Os neutrófilos estimulados pelo LTB4, quando pré-tratados com os ligantes de TSPO, apresentaram redução na clivagem da L-selectina, redução de quimiotaxia, e indução da geração de ROS. Baseado nestes resultados e nos dados da literatura, concluímos que os efeitos dos ligantes de TSPO sobre as funções neutrofílicas concentram-se na expressão de moléculas de adesão, no estresse oxidativo e na migração. Estes efeitos dependem da via de ativação e do tipo celular. / TSPO (Translocator protein 18 kDa) is an intracellular protein located on the out mitochondrial membrane, but also on the cytoplasmatic membrane and in the nucleus. TSPO is involved in endogen steroids substances biosynthesis, cellular proliferation, apoptosis, oxidative stress and in the modulation of inflammatory process, principally in the central nervous system where the protein is a marker of neuroinflammation. Neutrophils are key-cells in the inflammatory process, being the first cell line that reach the inflammatory focus, where they realize their phagocytic, secretory and microbicidal activities. This study assessed the effects of TSPO ligands Diazepam, Ro5-4864 (partial agonists) and PK-11195 (antagonist) on in vitro neutrophils activation, focusing on the Toll-like receptor (TLR) and G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) pathways. Neutrophils obtained from de peritoneal cavity of male BalbC mouse after four hours of Oyster glycogen injection (1%), were treated in vitro with culture medium, vehicle, Diazepam, Ro5-4864, PK-11195 (10, 100, e 1000 nM) and stimulated or not with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or Leukotriene B4 (LTB4). We assessed in basal conditions and after stimulus:The TSPO and adhesion molecules proteic expression by flow cytometry; the migration by a plate chemotaxis assay; Nitric oxide and cytokines production by ELISA and the Griess reaction, respectively; and finally the reactive oxygen species generation by a fluorescence spectrophotometer. The results show that TSPO is expressed in neutrophils in basal conditions, and that inflammatory stimulus with LPS and LTB4 did not alter this expression. We also show that TSPO ligands did not affect neutrophil function activated by LPS. However, neutrophils stimulated by LTB4, when pre-treated with TSPO ligands shown a reduced L-selectina cleavage, chemotaxis reduction and induction of ROS generation. Based on these data and in literature data, we concluded that the effects of TSPO ligands in neutrophilic functions is concentrated on adhesion molecules expression, on oxidative stress and on the migration. These effects depend to the activation pathways and to the cellular type.

O TSPO (Translocator protein 18 KDa) é uma proteína intracelular localizada na membrana mitocondrial externa, mas também na membrana citoplasmática, e no núcleo. O TSPO está envolvido na biossíntese de esteroides, proliferação celular, apoptose, estresse oxidativo, e na modulação da inflamação, principalmente no sistema nervoso central, onde a proteína é considerada um marcador da neuroinflamação. Os neutrófilos representam células-chave no processo inflamatório sendo as primeiras células a chegarem no foco inflamatório onde exercem atividades fagocíticas, secretórias e microbicidas. O presente trabalho investigou os efeitos de diferentes ligantes de TSPO Diazepam, Ro5-4864 (agonistas parciais) e PK-11195 (antagonista) na ativação dos neutrófilos in vitro focando na via de ativação do Toll-like receptor (TLR) e de receptores transmembranas ligados a proteína G (GPCR). Neutrófilos obtidos da cavidade peritoneal de camundongos BalbC machos quatro horas após injeção do glicogênio de ostra (1%), foram tratados in vitro com meio de cultura, veículo, Diazepam, Ro5-4864, PK-11195 (10, 100, e 1000 nM), e estimulados ou não com Lipopolissacarídeo (LPS) ou Leucotrieno B4 (LTB4). Foram avaliados em condições basais e após estímulo: a expressão de TSPO e de moléculas de adesão por citometria de fluxo; a migração pelo ensaio de quimiotaxia em placa; a produção de citocinas e do óxido nítrico por ELISA e pela reação de Griess, respectivamente; e finalmente, a geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio por espectrofotômetro de fluorescência. Os resultados obtidos mostram que o TSPO é expresso em neutrófilos em condições basais, e que os estímulos inflamatórios com LPS ou LTB4 não alteram essa expressão. Os ligantes de TSPO não afetam as funções de neutrófilos ativados pelo LPS, salvo a acentuação da geração de espécies reativas (ROS) observada com Ro5-4864 em células estimuladas com LPS. Os neutrófilos estimulados pelo LTB4, quando pré-tratados com os ligantes de TSPO, apresentaram redução na clivagem da L-selectina, redução de quimiotaxia, e indução da geração de ROS. Baseado nestes resultados e nos dados da literatura, concluímos que os efeitos dos ligantes de TSPO sobre as funções neutrofílicas concentram-se na expressão de moléculas de adesão, no estresse oxidativo e na migração. Estes efeitos dependem da via de ativação e do tipo celular. / TSPO (Translocator protein 18 kDa) is an intracellular protein located on the out mitochondrial membrane, but also on the cytoplasmatic membrane and in the nucleus. TSPO is involved in endogen steroids substances biosynthesis, cellular proliferation, apoptosis, oxidative stress and in the modulation of inflammatory process, principally in the central nervous system where the protein is a marker of neuroinflammation. Neutrophils are key-cells in the inflammatory process, being the first cell line that reach the inflammatory focus, where they realize their phagocytic, secretory and microbicidal activities. This study assessed the effects of TSPO ligands Diazepam, Ro5-4864 (partial agonists) and PK-11195 (antagonist) on in vitro neutrophils activation, focusing on the Toll-like receptor (TLR) and G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) pathways. Neutrophils obtained from de peritoneal cavity of male BalbC mouse after four hours of Oyster glycogen injection (1%), were treated in vitro with culture medium, vehicle, Diazepam, Ro5-4864, PK-11195 (10, 100, e 1000 nM) and stimulated or not with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or Leukotriene B4 (LTB4). We assessed in basal conditions and after stimulus:The TSPO and adhesion molecules proteic expression by flow cytometry; the migration by a plate chemotaxis assay; Nitric oxide and cytokines production by ELISA and the Griess reaction, respectively; and finally the reactive oxygen species generation by a fluorescence spectrophotometer. The results show that TSPO is expressed in neutrophils in basal conditions, and that inflammatory stimulus with LPS and LTB4 did not alter this expression. We also show that TSPO ligands did not affect neutrophil function activated by LPS. However, neutrophils stimulated by LTB4, when pre-treated with TSPO ligands shown a reduced L-selectina cleavage, chemotaxis reduction and induction of ROS generation. Based on these data and in literature data, we concluded that the effects of TSPO ligands in neutrophilic functions is concentrated on adhesion molecules expression, on oxidative stress and on the migration. These effects depend to the activation pathways and to the cellular type.

Introdução: A apneia do sono é condição prevalente e apresenta forte correlação com as principais causas de morbidade e mortalidade na sociedade ocidental. A perda do controle neuromotor proveniente de estágios mais profundos do sono está associada ao colapso faríngeo e a patogênese da apneia obstrutiva do sono (SAOS). A língua é implicada como principal protagonista na patogênese da obstrução das vias aéreas superiores (VAS) durante o sono. Não há farmacoterapia para SAOS. Novas tecnologias moleculares para controle neuronal através da inserção de um receptor de membrana geneticamente modificado, denominado Designer Receptor Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs [DREADDs], o qual pode ser ativado por uma droga inicialmente inerte, de alta especificdade, clozapina-n-oxide (CNO). Objetivos: 1) Modificar geneticamente os neurônios motores do núcleo do hipoglosso utilizando-se de DREADDs, o qual permite regular sua atividade; 2) Analisar a atividade do músculo genioglosso sob administração de CNO; 3) Desenvolver abordagens para rastreamento dos músculos protrusores e retratores da língua por marcadores retrógrados, injecção de subunidade B de toxina colérica (CTB-AF) e do vírus de pseudoraiva (PRV) 267 transportando um gene repórter, nos músculos efetores. Métodos: Receptores muscarínicos mutados em um vetor adenoviral associado (AAV) foram infundidos no núcleo do hipoglosso de camundongos via injeção esterotáxica bilateral. Após quatro semanas, período para expressão fenotípica, foram comparadas a atividade eletromiográfica do músculo genioglosso (EMGGG) em resposta a administração de ligante (CNO) versus solução salina. Em um segundo grupo foram realizadas infusões com vírus controle e comparação da EMGGG pré e pós infusão de CNO. Para rastreamento neural a CTB-AF foi injetado nos músculos protusores e retratores da língua e para expressão de Cre o vírus PRV-267 foi injetado no músculo genioglosso. A expressão dessas substâncias no núcleo do hipoglosso foi avaliada através de microscopia de fluorescência. Resultados: Dos dezoito camundongos injetados com DREADDs, dezesseis foram transfectados pelo vetor de AAV. Em camundongos onde o núcleo motor do hipoglosso foi corretamente atingido a EMGGG apresentou importante aumento após a administração de CNO. Em contraste, a atividade do genioglosso não apresentou alteração após a administração de soro fisiológico. Em três camundongos onde a transfecção ultrapassou os limites do núcleo foi observado arritmia respiratória após infusão do ligante. Todos animais infundidos com vírus controle foram adequadamente transfectados mas não apresentaram alteração eletromiográfica após a infusão de CNO. Foram diferenciados no núcleo do hipoglosso os neurônios motores da musculatura retratora e protusora da língua. A expressão intranuclear da enzima Cre-recombinase foi identificada no núcleo hipoglosso. Conclusão: A utilização de métodos quimiogenéticos para ativar grupos selecionados de neurônios motores em áreas cerebrais específicas representa técnica promissora para o estudo do controle neuromotor das VAS. Estes resultados sugerem que a terapia transgênica pode ser eficaz no tratamento da SAOS além de uma vasta gama de patologias que resultam de perturbações no controle neural das VAS. Através da manipulação das fibras musculares efetoras na língua foi possível a identificação do seu respectivo neurônio motor no núcleo do hipoglosso e induzi-lo a sintetizar uma enzima específica (Cre-recombinase) / Introduction: Sleep Apnea is a prevalent condition and strongly correlates with the major causes of morbidity and mortality in Western Society. The loss of motor input from deeper sleep stages is associated with pharyngeal collapsibility and the pathogenesis of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). The tongue plays a major role in the pathogenesis of upper airway (UA) obstruction during sleep. There is no pharmacotherapy for OSA. New molecular techniques allow to control neuronal function by inserting a genetically modified membrane receptor termed the Designer Receptor Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs [DREADDs] which can be activated by a highly specific and otherwise pharmacologically inert drug clozapine-N-oxide (CNO) Objectives: 1) To genetically modify the hypoglossal nucleus motor neurons using DREADDs, which allows to regulate their activity; 2) To analyze the genioglossal activity upon administration of CNO; 3) to develop novel approaches to targeting tongue protruders and retractors by retrograde tracers, cholera toxin subunit B (CTB-AF) and pseudorabies virus (PRV) 267 injection carrying a reporter gene into the effector muscles. Methods: Mutated muscarinic receptors in an adenoviral associated vector (AAV) were delivered to the hypoglossal nucleus via stereotactically bilateral injection. Four weeks after adenoviral delivery (expression period), responses in genioglossal electromyography (EMGGG) activity to intraperitoneal administration of CNO ligand vs. Saline (control) were compared in mice. In a second group, control-virus was infused and genioglossus muscle EMGGG was compared before and after CNO infusion. For neuronal tracing CTB-AF was injected into the protrusor and retractor muscles of the tongue and for Cre induction PRV-267 virus was injected in the genioglossus muscle. Expression of these substances in the hypoglossal nucleus were evaluated by fluorescence histology. Results: Of eighteen DREADDs injected mice, sixteen were transfected with AAV vector. After CNO administration EMGGG activity increased in mice where the hypoglossal motor nucleus was correctly targeted. In contrast, genioglossal activity was not augmented following saline administration. In three mice where transfection surpassed the nucleus limits, breathing arrhythmia was observed following ligand infusion. All animals infused with control virus were adequately transfected but did not present electromyographic change following CNO infusion. The motor neurons of the rectractor and protrusor musculature of the tongue were well differentiated in the hypoglossal nucleus. Intranuclear expression of Cre recombinase enzyme was identified in the hypoglossal nucleus. Conclusion: Utilizing chemogenetic methods to activate motor neuron groups in selected brain areas show promise to UA neuromotor control, and suggest that transgenic therapy may be effective in treating OSA and a wide range of pathologies that result in disturbances of UA neural control. By manipulating the effector muscle fibers of the tongue, it was possible to identify its respective motor neuron in the hypoglossal nucleus and to induce synthesis of a specific enzyme (Cre recombinase)

<p>Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is known to influence a vast number of physiological and behavioral processes such as vasoconstriction, circadian rhythms, feeding, anxiety and memory. Peptides of the NPY family bind to five different cloned G-protein coupled receptor subtypes (Y1, 2, 4-6). The studies compiled in this thesis present inter-species comparisons of sequence similarities, binding properties and expression patterns among receptors of the NPY family.</p><p>Cloning of Y1 and Y2 receptor subtypes from guinea pigs revealed strong binding profile similarity to the corresponding human receptors. Previously demonstrated atypical binding profiles in the caval vein of guinea pigs were concluded to result from other receptors than the cloned Y1 and Y2 receptors, or possibly combinations of distinct receptor subtypes.</p><p>The guinea pig Y5 receptor was found to be expressed in regions of the brain that have been indicated as important for regulation of food intake. Expression in the hypothalamus, amygdala and brain stem was noticed, similar to studies in rats and humans. In other brain regions, such as the striatum and hippocampus, some species differences were observed.</p><p>Mutagenesis studies of the human Y1 receptor indicated sites important for binding both of endogenous agonists and synthetic antagonists. Putative new sites of interaction with the Y1 antagonists BIBP3226 and/or SR120819A were recognized. The data were used to construct a three-dimensional structure model, based on a high-resolution bovine rhodopsin model.</p><p>Cloning of the chicken (<i>Gallus gallus</i>) Y1, Y2 and Y5 receptors revealed high sequence similarities with mammalian receptors. Most endogenous ligands bound with similar affinities as to mammalian receptors. The strongest exception was the discovery of high-affinity binding to chicken Y2 of [Leu³¹, Pro³⁴]NPY, which was previously considered to bind non-Y2 receptors only. </p><p>The new human Y1 receptor model provides a basis for further investigations of ligand-receptor interactions which will be aided by information on NPY receptors from other taxa. Guinea pigs are concluded to be a good complement to rats and mice for studying NPY signaling. These results demonstrate the benefits of species comparisons for pharmacological studies.</p>

It has been shown that the amino terminus and second extracellular loop (EC2) of CXCR2 are crucial for ligand binding and receptor activation. The lack of an ionic lock motif in the third intracellular loop of CXCR2 focuses an investigation of the mechanism by which these two extracellular regions contribute to receptor recognition and activation. The first objective of this investigation was to predict the structure of CXCR2 based on known structures of crystallized GPCRs. Rhodopsin, β2-adrenergic receptor, CXCR4 were used for homology modeling of CXCR2 structure. Highly conserved motifs found in sequence alignments of the template GPCRs were helpful to generate CXCR2 models. We also studied solvent accessibility of residues in the EC2 of CXCR2 in the inactive state. Most of the residues in the EC2 were found to be solvent accessible in the inactive state, suggesting the residues might be involved in ligand recognition. Second, we studied the role of charged residues in the EC2 of CXCR2 in ligand binding and receptor activation using constitutively active mutants (CAM) of CXCR2, D9K and D9R. Combinatorial mutations consisting of the CAM in the amino terminus and single mutations of charged residues in the EC2 were generated to study two concepts including “attraction” and “repulsion” models. The mutant receptors were used to test their effects on cell surface expression, ligand binding, receptor activation through PLC-β3, and cellular transformation. All the mutations in the repulsion model result in CXCR2 receptors that are unable to bind ligand, suggesting that each of the Arg residues in the EC2 are important for ligand recognition. Interestingly, mutations in the attraction model partially inhibited receptor activation by the CAM D9K, suggesting that Glu198 and Asp199 residues in the EC2 are associated with receptor activation. Furthermore, a novel CAM, E198A/D199A, was identified in this study. These negatively charged residues are very close to a conserved disulfide bond linking the EC2 and the third transmembrane. In this sense, these current discoveries concerning the structural basis of CXCR2 and interdisciplinary approaches would provide new insights to investigate unknown mechanisms of interaction with its cognate ligands and receptor activation.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is known to influence a vast number of physiological and behavioral processes such as vasoconstriction, circadian rhythms, feeding, anxiety and memory. Peptides of the NPY family bind to five different cloned G-protein coupled receptor subtypes (Y1, 2, 4-6). The studies compiled in this thesis present inter-species comparisons of sequence similarities, binding properties and expression patterns among receptors of the NPY family. Cloning of Y1 and Y2 receptor subtypes from guinea pigs revealed strong binding profile similarity to the corresponding human receptors. Previously demonstrated atypical binding profiles in the caval vein of guinea pigs were concluded to result from other receptors than the cloned Y1 and Y2 receptors, or possibly combinations of distinct receptor subtypes. The guinea pig Y5 receptor was found to be expressed in regions of the brain that have been indicated as important for regulation of food intake. Expression in the hypothalamus, amygdala and brain stem was noticed, similar to studies in rats and humans. In other brain regions, such as the striatum and hippocampus, some species differences were observed. Mutagenesis studies of the human Y1 receptor indicated sites important for binding both of endogenous agonists and synthetic antagonists. Putative new sites of interaction with the Y1 antagonists BIBP3226 and/or SR120819A were recognized. The data were used to construct a three-dimensional structure model, based on a high-resolution bovine rhodopsin model. Cloning of the chicken (Gallus gallus) Y1, Y2 and Y5 receptors revealed high sequence similarities with mammalian receptors. Most endogenous ligands bound with similar affinities as to mammalian receptors. The strongest exception was the discovery of high-affinity binding to chicken Y2 of [Leu31, Pro34]NPY, which was previously considered to bind non-Y2 receptors only. The new human Y1 receptor model provides a basis for further investigations of ligand-receptor interactions which will be aided by information on NPY receptors from other taxa. Guinea pigs are concluded to be a good complement to rats and mice for studying NPY signaling. These results demonstrate the benefits of species comparisons for pharmacological studies.

3BP2 is a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain- and Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing adapter protein that has been linked through genetic evidence to a rare human disease called cherubism 146. 3BP2 was originally cloned in a screen to identify c-Abl SH3 binding proteins 23,24. In overexpression studies, 3BP2 has been implicated as a positive regulatory adapter molecule coupled to immunoreceptor on T cells 67,69,70, B cells 68, NK cells 71-73 and mast cells 74,75. It was also evident that 3BP2 forms complexes with a number of signaling molecules, such as Zap-70, LAT, phospholipase C-γ1 (PLC-γ1), Grb2, Cbl, and Fyn in Jurkat cells 67 and Vav1, Vav2, PLC-γ, and Syk in Daudi B cells 68. Despite the growing body of biochemical data to support the importance of 3BP2 in cells of the hematopoietic lineage, a clear picture of the biological function of 3BP2 has yet to emerge. To elucidate the in vivo function of 3BP2, our laboratory has generated 3BP2 gene-deficient mice through homologous recombination 452. The 3BP2-deficient (3BP2-/-) mice were born at the expected Mendelian frequency and were fertile and viable. 3BP2-/- mice accumulate splenic marginal-zone (MZ) B cells, possess a reduced frequency of peritoneal B-1 B cells, and have a diminished thymus-independent type 2 (TI-2) antigen response. 3BP2-/- B cells demonstrate diminished proliferation and cell survival following cross-linking of the B-cell receptor (BCR). Following BCR ligation, 3BP2 might be recruited to BCR complex through its inducible interaction with BCR costimulatory molecule CD19. In the absence of 3BP2, the activation of BCR downstream effectors such as MAPK Erk1/2, JNK, and c-Abl is normal; however, 3BP2 deficiency leads to defects in Syk phosphorylation and calcium flux. In addition to defects in peripheral B cell activities, 3BP2 deficiency contributes to defects in neutrophil activities. In response to the chemotactic peptide, fMLF, 3BP2-/- neutrophils fail to establish directional migration in vitro. There is a defect in the accumulation of filamentous actin at the leading edge of migrating 3BP2-/- neutrophils which might be responsible for the random movement of these cells under shallow gradient of fMLF. In vivo, there is a delay in the recruitment of circulating neutrophils to the site of chemically induced inflammation in 3BP2-/- mice. Compared to wildtype neutrophils, 3BP2-/- neutrophils fail to properly produce superoxide anion (O2-) following fMLF stimulation. Defects in both directional migration and superoxide production of 3BP2-/- neutrophils might contribute to the reduction in bacteria clearance and the increased mortality in 3BP2-/- mice post Listeria Monocytogenes infection. In Chapter 1 of this thesis, I have reviewed basic structures and functions of the domain modules found in adapter proteins. In addition, I have reviewed the findings from numerous reports on the function of 3BP2 in different cell types. A discussion of the physical appearance and some of the initial characterization of 3BP2-deficient mice (3BP2-/-) we have generated in our laboratory are included in Chapter 1. The second part of Chapter 1 consists of an introduction on B cell receptor signaling pathway and B-cell development and activation. A discussion of G protein-coupled receptor-mediated neutrophil functions can also be found in Chapter 1. Chapter 2 contains all the methods and materials used in my study. Chapter 3 includes the characterization of peripheral B cell compartment of 3BP2-/- mice as well as the role of 3BP2 downstream of B-cell antigen receptor and in T-independent immune response. In chapter 4, I present data from experiments designed to examine the role of 3BP2 downstream of a G protein-coupled receptor, fMLF receptor, of neutrophils. I also show the requirement of 3BP2 in the clearance of Listeria Monocytogenes. In chapter 5, I propose two models for 3BP2 action based on the findings in B cells and neutrophils and discuss future areas for investigation.