High visual sensitivity is a common but important characteristic of animal eyes. It is especially critical for night vision. In animal eyes, photoreceptors are the first to receive the incoming rays of light and they convert the light signals to electrical signals before passing the information to interneurons in the eye and finally to the brain. To function in dim light conditions, photoreceptors have developed high sensitivities to light. It is reported that both mammalian rod photoreceptors and Drosophilaphotoreceptors can detect single photons. The high sensitivities of photoreceptors largely depend on a high content of rhodopsin, a light-stimulated G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), in light sensory organelles, outer segments in mammals and rhabdomeres in Drosophila. Two shared characteristics, the tightly packed photoreceptive membrane and the high concentration of rhodopsin in the membrane, work together to enable the photoreceptors to achieve the high content of rhodopsin in photosensory organelles in both mammals and Drosophila. In this thesis, I have used the Drosophilaeye as a model system to study the molecular mechanisms required for the maintenance of these two characteristics. In the second chapter, I present a new molecular mechanism of preventing Gq-mediated rhabdomeral degeneration. A new gene named tadr (for torn and diminished rhabdomeres), when mutated, leads to visual sensitivity reduction and photoreceptor degeneration. Degeneration in the tadr mutant is characterized by shrunken and disrupted rhabdomeres. The TADR protein interacts in vitro with the major light receptor Rh1 rhodopsin, and genetic reduction of the Rh1 level suppresses the tadr-induced degeneration, suggesting the degeneration is Rh1-dependent. Nonetheless, removal of phospholipase C (PLC), a key enzyme in phototransduction, and that of Arr2 fail to inhibit rhabdomeral degeneration in the tadr mutant background. Biochemical analyses reveal that, in the tadr mutant, the Gq protein of Rh1 is defective in dissociation from the membrane during light stimulation. Importantly, reduction of Gq level by introducing a hypomorphic allele of Gαq gene greatly inhibits the tadr degeneration phenotype. These results may suggest that loss of a potential TADR-Rh1 interaction leads to an abnormality in the Gqsignaling, which in turn triggers rhabdomeral degeneration independent of the PLC phototransduction cascade. We propose that TADR-like proteins may also protect photoreceptors from degeneration in mammals including humans. In the third chapter, I present a Drosophila CUB- and LDLa-domain transmembrane protein CULD that counteracts the visual arrestin Arr1-mediated endocytosis to retain rhodopsin in rhabdomeral membrane. CULD is mostly localized in rhabdomeres, but is also detected in scarce rhodopsin endocytic vesicles that contain Arr1. An intracellular region of CULD interacts with Arr1 in vitro. In both culdmutant and knockdown flies, a large amount of rhodopsin is mislocalized in the cell body of photoreceptors through lightdependent, Arr1-mediated endocytosis, leading to reduction of photoreceptor sensitivity. Expressing a wild-type CULD protein in photoreceptors, but not a mutant variant lacking the Arr1-interacting site, rescues both the rhodopsin mislocalization and the low sensitivity phenotypes. Once rhodopsin has been internalized in adult mutant flies, it is reversed only by expression of CULD but not by blocking endocytosis, suggesting that CULD promotes recycling of endocytosed rhodopsin to the rhabdomere. Our results demonstrate an important role of CULD in the maintenance of membrane rhodopsin density and photoreceptor sensitivity. We propose that a common cellular function of CUB- and LDLa-domain proteins, in both mammals and invertebrates, is to concentrate receptors including GPCRs in particular regions of cell membrane. In summary, the work addressed in this thesis has identified new molecular mechavii nisms underlying the maintenance of visual sensitivity in Drosophila, either through preventing Gq-mediated rhabdomeral degeneration or through antagonizing arrestin-mediated rhodopsin endocytosis. This work has advanced our understanding of visual biology and the general regulatory mechanisms of GPCR signaling, and may provide valuable clues to pathologic studies of human retinal degeneration disorders.

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La mélatonine est une neurohormone produite principalement par la glande pinéale de manière circadienne et agissant par l’activation de deux récepteurs couplés aux protéines G (RCPGs) appelés MT1 et MT2. La mélatonine régule de nombreuses fonctions physiologiques importantes. La régulation des niveaux de dopamine (DA) et de glucose en font partie mais nous ne savons pas clairement comment la mélatonine les régule.Les niveaux de DA extracellulaire sont principalement régulés par son transporteur (DAT) responsable de sa recapture dans les neurones présynaptiques afin de prévenir d’une hyperactivation des récepteurs dopaminergiques. Par conséquent, nous avons vérifié le rôle de DAT dans la régulation du système dopaminergique par le système mélatoninergique. Nous avons montré qu’en interagissant avec la forme immature non-glycosylée de DAT, MT1 et MT2 le retiennent dans le réticulum endoplasmique régulant ainsi son expression à la surface cellulaire et donc la recapture de la DA. De la même manière, les souris déficientes en MT1 ou MT2 ont montré une augmentation de la recapture de la DA dans les synaptosomes de striatum et une baisse de l’hypermotilité induite par l’amphétamine. Dans ce projet nous avons ainsi révélé un nouveau lien entre les systèmes mélatoninergiques et dopaminergiques basé sur la formation de complexes moléculaires entre les récepteurs de la mélatonine et DAT.Afin de mieux comprendre le rôle de la mélatonine dans la régulation des niveaux de glucose, nous avons ensuite étudié l’implication de variants génétiques de MT2 dans le développement du diabète de type 2 (DT2). Des études antérieures avaient montré que des variants naturels défectueux fonctionnellement étaient associés à un risque de développer le DT2. Afin de déterminer plus précisément les propriétés défectueuses en lien avec le DT2, nous avons mesuré l’activation spontanée et celle induite par la mélatonine de 40 variants MT2. Nous avons ainsi montré que des défauts d’activation des protéines Gαi et Gαz induite par la mélatonine et de recrutement spontané de la βarrestine-2 sont significativement reliés à un risque de développer le DT2. Les résultats expérimentaux corrélaient avec les prédictions de l’analyse sur le score d’évolution. Ce travail permettra de nouvelles avancées dans la recherche de traitements personnalisés pour les personnes portants les mutations sur MT2 afin qu’il retrouve une réponse non défectueuse.Le séquençage de 9393 personnes a permis l’identification de 32 variants naturels MT1. Le récepteur MT1 sauvage et les variants ont ainsi été caractérisés grâce aux techniques de transfert d’énergie par résonnance de bioluminescence (BRET). Nous avons montré que MT1 active les protéines Gαi/o, Gα12 et Gα15 et recrute la βarrestine-2. L’analyse des résultats par factorisation matricielle non linéaire a révélé l’existence de 5 clusters caractérisés par différents profils de signalisation. La modélisation 3D par homologie de MT1 a permis de déterminer l’impact de chaque variant sur l’activation du récepteur et ses interactions avec les protéines G et la βarrestine-2. Ce projet a ainsi permis de démontrer que des variants naturels sont très intéressant afin de comprendre les mécanismes d’action des RCPGs. En résumé, ce travail contribue à la compréhension des fonctions des récepteurs à la mélatonine et souligne leur importance dans la régulation du système dopaminergique et de l’homéostasie glucidique. Nos résultats offrent de nouvelles perspectives dans la recherche de nouveaux traitements personnalisés pour les patients souffrant d’un dérèglement du système dopaminergique ou de DT2. / Melatonin is a neurohormone mainly released from the pineal gland in a circadian manner acting through two G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) called MT1 and MT2. Melatonin regulates many important physiological functions. Regulation of dopamine (DA) and glucose levels are two of them but how they do this is not clear.Extracellular DA levels are mainly regulated by its transporter (DAT) which mediates DA re-uptake into presynaptic nerve termini to prevent DA receptor hyperactivation in the presynaptic cleft. Consequently, we verified the role of DAT in the regulation of the DA system by melatonin. We showed that MT1 and MT2, by interacting with the immature non-glycosylated form of DAT retain DAT in the endoplasmic reticulum thus regulating DAT cell surface expression and DA reuptake. Consistently, mice with targeted deletion of MT1 and MT2 show markedly enhanced DA uptake in striatal synaptosomes and decreased amphetamine-induced locomotor activity. Collectively, we revealed here a molecular link between the melatonin and DA systems, which is based on the formation of a molecular complex between melatonin receptors and DAT.To better understand the role of melatonin on the regulation of glucose levels, we studied the involvement of genetic variants of MT2 in the development of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Previous studies showed that natural loss-of-function variants of MT2 associate with T2D risk. To determine more precisely the defective properties linked to T2D risk we monitored spontaneous and melatonin-induced activation of different signaling pathways by 40 MT2 variants. We show that defects in melatonin-induced Gαi and Gαz activation and spontaneous βarrestin-2 recruitment are most significantly associated to T2D risk. Experimental results correlated well with those predicted by evolutionary lineage analysis. This work will help to propose personalized treatments for MT2 variant carriers to recover their defective responses.Sequencing of 9393 individuals resulted in the identification of 32 natural MT1 variants. MT1 wild-type and variants were functionally characterized in bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) assays. We showed that MT1 activates Gαi/o, Gα12 and Gα15 proteins and recruits βarrestin-2. Analyzes of results by non-linear matrix factorization revealed the existence of 5 clusters characterized by different signaling profiles. Computational homology modeling of the 3D model of MT1 helped to determine the impact of each variant on receptor activation and interaction with G proteins and βarrestin-2. Collectively, our data illustrate that natural variants are powerful tools to understand the molecular basis of GPCR function. Overall, this work contributes to our understanding of the function of melatonin receptors and highlights their importance in the regulation of the DA system and glucose homeostasis. Our results will open new, personalized therapeutic options for patient suffering from a defective DA system or T2D.

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Src family kinases (SFKs) are key regulators of cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. The expression of these non-receptor tyrosine kinases is strongly correlated with cancer development and tumor progression. Thus, this family of proteins serves as an attractive drug target. The activation of SFKs can occur via multiple signaling pathways, yet many of them are poorly understood. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)- mediated regulation of SFKs, which is of considerable interest because GPCRs are among the most widely used pharmaceutical targets. This type of activation can occur through a direct interaction between the two proteins or be allosterically regulated by arrestins and G proteins. We postulate that a rearrangement of binding motifs within the active conformation of arrestin-3 mediates Src regulation by comparison of available crystal structures. Therefore, we hypothesize a potentially different activation mechanism compared to arrestin-2. Furthermore, we discuss the probable direct regulation of SFK by GPCRs and investigate the intracellular domains of exemplary GPCRs with conserved polyproline binding motifs that might serve as scaffolding domains to allow such a direct interaction. Large intracellular domains in GPCRs are often understudied and, in general, not much is known of their contribution to different signaling pathways. The suggested direct interaction between a GPCR and a SFK could allow for a potential immediate allosteric regulation of SFKs by GPCRs and thereby unravel a novel mechanism of SFK signaling. This overview will help to identify new GPCR–SFK interactions, which could serve to explain biological functions or be used to modulate downstream effectors.