Les nanotechnologies sont devenues depuis plusieurs années un axe majeur de développement dans les domaines du diagnostic, de l’imagerie, de la délivrance de médicament, du suivi thérapeutique et de l’ingénierie tissulaire. L’administration de produits non injectables sous leur forme libre ou bien possédant une toxicité élevée, peut être facilitée par l’utilisation de nanovecteurs, modifiant leur distribution. Ils permettent donc de réduire les doses administrées, limiter les effets secondaires et diriger le contenu du vecteur (agent de contraste, drogue) vers un organe cible ou une tumeur, en présentant à la surface de celui-ci des molécules de ciblage de ces zones spécifiques.Cette thèse s'inscrit dans cette thématique : nous avons exploré les possibilités de former des gels chimiques à partir des nanoparticules lipidiques qui sont constituées d'un cœur huileux pouvant encapsuler de petites molécules hydrophobes et d'une couche de surfactants permettant la stabilisation des gouttelettes en phase aqueuse.Nous avons pu synthétiser plusieurs surfactants PEGylés fonctionnalisés (thiol, maléimides, amine, oxyamines et ONB-maléimide). Les protocoles de synthèse de ces surfactants sont affinés et reproductibles.Ces surfactants ont été incorporés à la surface des nanoparticules lipidiques. Les nanoparticules fonctionnalisées ainsi obtenues ont été caractérisées et les fonctions présentes à leur surface sont mises en évidence.Différentes sortes de gels chimiques stables, résistant à la dilution, rapides à fabriquer et contrôlables ont été élaborés.Ces gels chimiques peuvent être utilisés dans l’avenir pour encapsuler des protéines ou des drogues. / Nanotechnology became for several years a major development in the areas of diagnostics, imaging, drug delivery, therapeutic monitoring, and tissue engineering. The administration of non-injectable products in their free form or with high toxicity, can be facilitated by the use of nanocarriers, changing their distribution. They therefore reduce the doses administered, limit side effects and direct the contents of the vector (contrast agent, drug) to a target organ or tumor, by presenting to the surface thereof targeting molecules of these areas specific.This thesis fits into this theme : we have explored the possibilities of forming chemical gels based on lipid nanoparticles which are composed of an oily heart can encapsulate small hydrophobic molecules and a layer of surfactants allowing stabilization of the droplets in the aqueous phase.We have synthesized several PEGylated functionalized surfactants (thiol, maleimide, amine, and oxyamines ONB-maleimide). synthesis protocols of these surfactants are refined and repeatable.These surfactants were incorporated into the surface of lipid nanoparticles. The functionalized nanoparticles thus obtained have been characterized and the functions present at their surface are highlighted.Different kinds of chemical gels stable, resistant to dilution, fast and controllable manufacturing have been developed.These chemical gels can be used in the future for encapsulating proteins or drugs.

Chapter 1. A Brief Overview of Low Molecular Mass Gels and their Applications This chapter deals with molecular gels derived from the self-assembly of small organic molecules (typical molecular weight < 2000 daltons), endowed with appropriate functions to promote anisotropic growth of supramolecular aggregates, by means of various non-covalent interactions like van der Waals, π-πstacking, H-bonding etc., leading to a self-assembled fibrillar network (SAFIN). Several representative examples from the literature (Chart 1) are discussed to demonstrate the structural diversity of the gelator molecules which form self-assembled organogels or hydrogels. Chart 1 Besides emphasizing on the diverse molecular structures of the gelators, applications of gel phase materials as functional nanostructures are also discussed (Scheme 1). Some of the aspects that have been elaborated in this context include the use of gels as reaction media, as sensors, in light harvesting, as biomaterials and in optoelectronic applications. Scheme 1 Chapter 2. Supramolecular Chirality in Organogels: Spectroscopic, Morphological and Rheological Investigations of Gels/Xerogels derived from Alkyl Pyrenyl Urethanes This chapter addresses the formation of chiral supramolecular structures in the organogels derived from chiral 1R (or 2R), and its mixture with its enantiomer (1S) and a series of achiral analogues (3-9) by extensive circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopic measurements (Chart 2). Morphological studies by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were complemented by the measurements of their bulk properties by thermal stability and rheological studies. Specific molecular recognition events (1/3 vs 2/3) and solvent effects (isooctane vs dodecane) were found to be critical in the formation of the chiral aggregates. Computational studies were carried out to understand the interactions responsible for the formation of chiral superstructures. Chapter 3. Self-assembled Composite Organogels based on a Thermo-reversible Photoactive n-Acene Fibrillar Scaffold and Organic Ligand stabilized ZnO Nanoparticles Organic/inorganic composite organogels were obtained in n-BuOH by the self-assembly of 2,3-di-n-decyloxyanthracene (DDOA, Chart 3) in this solvent in the presence of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) capped with different organic ligands (Chart 4). When ligands (oleic acid or 2,3-substituted anthracenic acid/oleic acid mixed shell) having structural similarity with the gelator molecule were used to cap the NPs, a homogeneous dispersion of the NPs in the gel matrix was obtained, as confirmed by microscopy (TEM and confocal fluorescence microscopy) experiments. The efficient integration of these NPs into the gel fibers resulted in a significant quenching (20-25%) of DDOA emission, even with extremely small loading of these NPs (~ 10-4mol% compared to DDOA) into the gel fibers. The mechanical properties (rheology were unaffected relative to the pristine DDOA organogel. However, the presence of the NPs lowered the critical gelation concentration and accelerated the gelation kinetics. Attempts to disperse these NPs (the ones without fluoro capping) on the aerogel fibers of DDOA by dissolving both DDOA and the NPs in supercritical (sc) CO2 were not successful (Fig. 1), since the NPs could not be dissolved in scCO2. Figure 1. (a) TEM images of DDOA aerogels obtained from scCO2, containing A23-NPs, scale bar 200 nm; (b) SEM image of DDOA aerogel obtained in the presence of OL-NPs, scale bar 10 µm. Chapter 4. Donor-Acdeptor Interaction Promoted Gelation Of Organic Fluids by Anthracene Carboxamides/2,4,7-Trinitrofluorenone Tris Carboxamides of anthracene were found to form charge-transfer driven organogels in a range of aliphatic alcohols in the presence of an equivalent of (electron-deficient) 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone (TNF) (Chart 5). Intense color developed in the gel state during the sol to gel phase transition process (Fig 2) Besides, none of these carboxamides were able to form gel in the absence of TNF, suggesting the importance of charge-transfer interaction in the gel formation. Importantly, most of these gels formed only through rapid cooling of the hot solution, otherwise, leading to the precipitation of the CT complex from the solvent. This result indicated that the kinetics is very important for the formation of these gels. Optimum stoichiometry of the donor and acceptor was found to be 1:1. At this molar ratio of the donor and the acceptor, the gels not only showed the highest thermal stability (thermal gel melting experiments), they also displayed the highest values of the mechanical strength and the yield stress (rheology experiments). All the gels showed extensive quenching of the emission of the monomeric anthracenic donor. For the gels derived from the 2-substituted donor, a low energy emission at high wavelength indicated the formation of an emissive CT exciplex. X-ray powder diffraction studies of these xerogels revealed the presence of layered, fibrillar structures in the xerogel phase. (For structural formula pl see the abstract file)

Chapter 1: Functional and Responsive Supramolecular Gels In this chapter ‘supramolecular gels’ derived from small organic molecules with molecular mass of typically less than 2000 daltons are discussed. Representative examples of various low molecular weight gelators based on their natural availability and also divergent functionalities are mentioned (Scheme 1). Scheme 1 Advances in the recent years have been very rapid in the field of supramolecular chemistry of gels giving rise to ‘Tunable responsive gels’. Control of the gel property in a reversible fashion has been the highlight of responsive gels. A few of the gels which are responsive towards various stimuli such as pH, photoirradiation, cations, anions, neutral species have been discussed. Advances and scope of supramolecular gels in various applications have also been mentioned in detail with respective examples. Utilities of supramolecular gels in synthesis of nanostructures, in biology and medicine, enzyme recognition, catalysis etc are discussed. (Scheme 2). Chapter 2: Charge transfer triggered organogels of bis(bile acid)anthracene conjugates and 2,4.7-trinitrofluorenone. In this chapter the study involves the synthesis of a special class of anthracene based steroidal derivatives. The appending of two amphiphilic bile acid units imparts a unique hydrophobic/ hydrophilic balance on the chromophore. The 2,3-didecyloxyanthracene (DDOA) was reported to be a gelator of various organic solvents but none of the three bile acid derivatives of anthracene synthesized was a gelator on its own. It was also observed that dialkoxy (propyl, heptyl, decyl) derivatives of anthracene formed strong charge-transfer gels in the presence of 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone (TNF). The addition of electron deficient TNF to the steroidal derivatives of anthracene resulted in the gelation of some specific organic solvents. The driving force behind the gel formation resulted from the charge-transfer (CT) interaction between the electron rich anthracene and electron deficient fluorenone. Figure 1. Chemical structures of 2,3-bis(bile acid)anthracenes and TNF (centre), a scanning electronic microscopy image of xerogels prepared from bis(deoxycholyl)anthracene and TNF (left) and a photograph of the gel of bis(deoxycholyl)anthracene and TNF in n-octanol. Thermochromic property (during sol to gel phase transition), absorption and variable temperature fluorescence measurements supported CT interaction. Thermal stability studies and dynamic rheology experiments confirmed that CT gels were thermally most stable and mechanically stronger with equi-molar amounts of the two components. Stiffness values obtained from rheological experiments also suggested that the gels were viscoelastic solids. Chapter 3(A): Tb(III) sensitization in an organogel matrix: Selective luminescence quenching by an aromatic nitro derivative In this chapter the discovery of metallo organogel formation by mixing methanolic solutions of Tb(OAc)3 and sodium deoxycholate (NaDCh) has been explored. Sensitization of Tb3+ was observed by doping micromolar quantities of 2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN). Mechanical properties of Tb3+-DCh gels were investigated by rheology at three different ratios of Tb3+ and DCh. It was observed that increasing in the Tb3+ to DCh ratio increased the mechanical property of the gels. Time delayed emission spectra were recorded with increasing concentration of DHN and luminescence increase was noticed in a linear fashion. Importance of gel matrix was demonstrated by measuring the Tb3+ luminescence at fixed concentration (5 mM) with/without DHN in the solution and gel media. Figure 2:: Schematic representation of Tb3+ sensitization by DHN. Photograph (right)) of the Tb3++-DCh (5/15 mM) gels with (a) 50 µM DHHN (b) No DHHN under UVV (365 nm). Sensitization by an electron rich chromophore created interest in us to dope relatively electron deficient compounds into the gel matrix for possible quenching off Tb3+-luminescence. Among the electron deficient analytes screened included 1,5-difluro-2,4-diinitrobenzenne (DFDNB)), 2,4 dinitrophenol (DNPPh), p-nitrobenzaldehydde (p-NB), 2,4,6-trinitrootoluene (TTNT) and 22,4,7¬trinitrofluuorenone (TTNF). Microscopy studies such as AFM, TEMM and SEMM revealed highly entangled fibrous network in the morphology of Tb3+--DCh xerogel. Solid state luminescence experiments suggested that sensiitization was observed in the xerogels and extent of sensitization was comparable to that of the gel state. Xerogel soaking studies inferred the strong adherence of the DHNN to the gel fibres. Chapter 3(B): Anion dependent structural, morphological and mechanical features of Ln(III)-Cholate gels In this chapter the counter anion influence on various aspects of hydrogels has been discussed. It has been reported from our laboratory that mixing of aqueous solutions of sodium cholate (15 mM) and various lanthanide acetates (5 mM) followed by sonication resulted in either transparent or transluscent gels. Unsurprisingly we found that aqueous solutions of lanthanide nitrates and lanthanide chlorides also formed hydrogels upon mixing with sodium cholate (Figure 33). Dried films of Tb3++-cholate and Eu3+-cholate gels prepared from their respective nitrate salts displayed birefringent structures under polarizing optical microscopy (POM). But no significant textures of any type were observed in the case of gels prepared from either chloride or acetate salts. Figure 3:: Photographs of the hydrogels prepared by mixing of aqueous solutions of various salts Tb33+ and Eu3+ with sodium cholate solutions. Scanning electron microscopic images exhibited fibrous structures for all the xerogels in the morphology. Atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy measurements revealed helical morphology for xerogels prepared from nitrate salts where as flat tape-like cross linkage was observed for chloride or acetate based xerogels. Anion effect on mechanical properties was significant in the sense that gels prepared from acetate salts displayed highest mechanical strength followed by nitrate based gels which were stronger than that of chloride based gels. Titration of sodium cholate solution with various lanthanide salt solutions gave the direct evidence of thee pH variation as a function of the anions. Figure 4: TEM images of xerogels prepared from gels of nitrate salts of Tb3+ (left) and Eu3+ (right) Chapter 4: Design, synthesis a nd study of bile acid ‘click’ conjugates of perylene bisimides (PBIs) and naphthalene bisimides (NBIs) In this chapter the synthesis of novel bile acid derivatives of perylene and naphthalene bisimides is discussed. The ‘click’ chemistry procedure was used to link bile acid groups on to the chromophores. Azide derivatives of PBIs and NBIs were prepared inn 3 step methods which were coupled to propargyl esters of bile acids by following standard ‘click chemistry’ protocols to achieve the target molecules (Scheme 3). Scheme 3 The studies conducted mainly focused on Cholic acid (CA) conjugates of PBIs and NBIs. Steady state absorption and emission studies of CA conjugates were performed in 10% MeOH/DCM system. POM and fluorescence images showed red emissive aggregates in case of PBI films. TEM measurements revealed uniform aggregate sizes for both the films of PBI(CA)2 and NBI(CA)2. SEM and AFM (Fig 5) studies exhibited spherical aggregates of diameter around 100-200 nm for PBI(CA)2 films where as aggregates of diameter around 500-700 nm were observed for NBI(CA)2 films. Figure 5: AFM images and their corresponding height profiles of PBI films (left) and NBI films (right)

Technologies such as horizontal wells and multi-stage hydraulic fracturing have made ultra-low permeability shale and tight gas reservoirs productive but the industry is still on the learning curve when it comes to addressing various production issues. Some of the problems encountered while hydraulically fracturing these reservoirs are the absence of frac barriers, thinner shales and the increased presence of geological hazards. Induced vertical fractures sometimes extend to an underlying aquifer and become a conduit to the well. We have developed a low-concentration, low-viscosity and delayed-crosslink polymeric gel system as a water shutoff agent for hydraulically-fractured tight gas and shale reservoirs, where some fractures might connect to water rich zones. The system also is a significant improvement over traditional flowing gels for fracture water shutoff in conventional reservoirs because of these features. The gel uses high molecular weight hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) at low polymer concentrations with a delayed organic crosslinker. This crosslinker is more environmentally benign and provides much longer gelation time and stronger final gels than comparable polymer loadings with chromium carboxylate crosslinkers at higher temperatures. The low viscosity system allows low-pressure extrusion of gelant into the narrow-aperture fractures present in unconventional gas reservoirs. The gelant can be pumped at low pressures due to lower polymer concentrations and delayed gelation point. This allows the potential to seal problem zones that are producing excess water even when the fractures conducting water have very narrow apertures. By impeding water production, the gel system developed here can effectively delay water loading thereby avoiding abandonment or installation of expensive equipment with increased operational costs, thus extending life and reserves of unconventional gas wells.

Microfluidics covers the science of manipulating small quantities of fluids using microscale devices with great potential in analysis, multiplexing, automation and high-throughput screening. Compared to conventional systems, microfluidics benefits from miniaturization resulting in shortened time of experiments, decreased sample and reagent consumptions as well as reduced overall costs. For microfluidic devices where further weight and cost reduction is additionally required, stimuli-responsive hydrogels are particularly interesting materials since they can convert an environmental stimulus directly to mechanical work without any extra power source. Hydrogels are used as chemostats, micropumps, and chemo-mechanical valves in microfluidics. Existing studies about hydrogels for flow control reported on hydrogels responsive to only one stimulus, including temperature, pH value, and solvent. Combining temperature and pH stimuli within one material is an interesting approach, which allows internal as well as external flow control and broadens potential applications. Among the variety of temperature- and pH-responsive monomers, N-isopropylacrylamide (NiPAAm) and acrylic acid (AA) are considered as ideal building blocks to obtain a hydrogel with pronounced stimuli response. There are different architectures for realizing a temperature- and pH-responsive hydrogel with NiPAAm and AA (e.g. copolymer gels, interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs), semi-IPNs, or graft copolymer gels). Each approach has its inherent benefits and disadvantages. Grafted hydrogels with a temperature-responsive backbone and pH-responsive graft chains are a promising architecture overcoming drawbacks of copolymer gels (loss of thermoresponsive behavior due to the comonomer), interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs, difficult fabrication of structured particles via soft lithography), and semi-IPNs (leakage of penetrating polymer). However, studies about multi-responsive grafted hydrogels for flow control in microfluidics are comparatively rare and further research is needed to emphasize their real potential. For this reason, the overall aim of this work was the synthesis of temperature- and pH-responsive grafted hydrogels based on NiPAAm and AA for flow control in microfluidics. This required the synthesis of a pH-responsive macromonomer by RAFT polymerization. As a suitable chain transfer agent with a carboxylic acid group for an end-group functionalization, 2-(dodecyl-thiocarbonothioylthio)-2-methylpropionic (DTP) acid was employed. The approach towards the synthesis of the pH-responsive macromonomer based on two key steps: (i) attaching a functional group, which retains during RAFT polymerization, and (ii) conducting the RAFT polymerization to synthesize the pH-responsive macromonomer. In total, four functionalizations for the macromonomer were investigated, including allyl, unconjugated vinyl, acrylamide, and styrene. End-group analysis and solubility tests revealed that macromonomers with a styrene functionalization are suitable for the synthesis of graft copolymer gels. A series of grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels with a PNiPAAm backbone and PAA-styrene graft chains (Mn = 4200 g/mol, Mw/Mn = 1.6) were prepared and characterized. The main goal was to identify suitable stimuli for an application as a chemo-mechanical valve and to show reversibility of the swelling and shrinking process. Importantly, the temperature sensitivity should be retained, while a pH response needs to be introduced. Equilibrium swelling studies quantified with the response ratio revealed that a grafting density of PAA-styrene between 0.25 and 1 mol-% provides a suitable response towards temperature, pH, salt, and solvent. Furthermore, the swelling and shrinking process is highly reproducible over four consecutive cycles for all four stimuli. In order to evaluate the swelling kinetics of grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels, the collective diffusion model extended by a volume specific surface was applied. The determined cooperative diffusion coefficients of net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene indicated faster response time with increasing PAA-styrene content. Remarkably, net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene containing 1 mol-% PAA-styrene exhibited an accelerated swelling rate by a factor of 9 compared to pure net-PNiPAAm. Rheological analysis of net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene showed that an increasing graft density leads to decreasing mechanical stability. The photopolymerization experiments showed that the gelation time linearly increases with the grafting density. Grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels were tested in two fluidic setups for flow control. A straightforward fluidic platform was developed consisting of a fluid reservoir, an inlet channel, an actuator chamber and an outlet channel. The actuator chamber was filled with crushed hydrogel particles. Accordingly, the fluid flow was directed by the active resistance of the hydrogel particles in the actuator chamber (i.e. swelling degree) and allowed flow control by the local environmental conditions. Flow rate studies showed that the fluid flow throttles when the inlet channel was provided with a solution in which the hydrogel swells (pH 9 buffer solution at room temperature). In contrast, the hydrogel-based valve opens immediately when a solution was used in which the hydrogel collapses. The advantageous properties of net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene were highlighted by using pH, salt and solvent stimulus in one experiment. Remarkably, the opening and closing function was reversible over six consecutive cycles. As part of a collaboration project with the chair of polymeric microsystems within the Cluster of Excellence Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (A. Richter and P. Frank), membrane assures hydraulic coupling in a chemo-fluidic membrane transistor (CFMT) and grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels were combined to emphasize the potential of both systems. Flow rate studies showed that 4 different stimuli can be used to control the opening and closing state of the CFMT. Multiple opening and closing cycles revealed no considerable changes in the valve function emphasizing a high potential for an application in microfluidics.

A curcumina é considerada um composto interessante para a indústria de alimentos por apresentar diversas propriedades bioativas e cor amarela intensa, porém sua elevada hidrofobicidade e instabilidade limitam sua aplicação em grande escala. Uma alternativa para a redução de tais problemas consiste na encapsulação deste bioativo em partículas lipídicas sólidas, que, quando estáveis, podem ser aplicadas para a produção de géis carregados com emulsões. Tais sistemas vêm sendo foco de diversas pesquisas por possibilitarem a obtenção de produtos com diferentes propriedades estruturais e sensoriais, a partir da aplicação combinada de diferentes agentes gelificantes e tensoativos. Nesse contexto, o presente projeto de mestrado teve como principais objetivos: a produção, caracterização e estudo da estabilidade de géis carregados com micropartículas lipídicas sólidas (MLS), produzidos com isolado proteico de soja (IPS) comercial, na presença e ausência de polissacarídeos (goma xantana - GX e goma locusta - GL), bem como a avaliação da estabilidade da curcumina encapsulada nos diferentes sistemas. Para o desenvolvimento desse estudo comparativo, três formulações de géis não-carregados, obtidos a frio, foram selecionadas: formulação G1 (15% IPS, 10 mM CaCl2, na ausência de polissacarídeos), formulação G2 (15% IPS, 0,1% GX e 5 mM de CaCl2) e formulação G3 (15% IPS, 0,2% GL e 15 mM CaCl2), todas em pH 7 e pré-aquecidas a 80 °C por 30 minutos. Tais sistemas foram utilizados também para a produção de géis carregados com MLS de estearina de palma, estabilizadas com tween 80 e span 80. Géis carregados e não-carregados foram adequadamente caracterizados a partir de ensaios de perfil de textura, avaliações da capacidade de retenção de água, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, microscopia confocal de varredura a laser e ensaios reológicos de pequena e grande deformação. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que a presença dos diferentes polissacarídeos alterou de formas distintas a organização estrutural dos géis de IPS, porém, em ambos os casos, as interações entre os biopolímeros resultaram no fortalecimento das estruturas formadas. Além disso, foi verificado que, nos géis carregados, as MLS mostraram-se ativas, fortalecendo a estrutura dos diferentes sistemas analisados. Já a partir do estudo da estabilidade da curcumina encapsulada nos diferentes sistemas, verificou-se que, o bioativo encapsulado em MLS em dispersão apresentou elevada estabilidade ao longo dos 60 dias de armazenamento, por outro lado, em géis carregados, a estabilidade da curcumina foi reduzida após 15 dias de estocagem. Esses resultados estão possivelmente relacionados às alterações estruturais dos géis carregados, verificados a partir de análises de perfil de textura e capacidade de retenção de água, que levaram ao colapso dos sistemas entre os dias 30 e 40 de armazenamento, indicando a necessidade de melhorias nas formulações utilizadas. / Curcumin is considered an interesting compound for the food industry, once it presents many bioactive properties and an intense yellow color, however its high hydrophobicity and instability limit its large-scale application. One of the alternatives applied in order to reduce these problems, consists in encapsulating this bioactive in solid lipid particles, which can also be applied for the production of emulsion filled gels. These systems have been frequently studied, once they allow the obtation of products with different structural and sensory properties, through the combined application of different gelling agents and surfactants. In this context, the objectives of this study were: the production, characterization and evaluation of the stability of cold-set emulsion filled gels, produced with comercial soy protein isolate (SPI), at presence and absence of polysaccharides (xanthan gum - XG and locust bean gum - LBG), and also the evaluation of the stability of encapsulated curcumin at the diferente systems. In order to develop this comparative study, three formulations of cold-set unfilled gels were selected: formulation G1 (15% SPI, 10 mM CaCl2, without polysaccharides), formulation G2 (15% SPI, 0,1% XG e 5 mM de CaCl2) and formulation G3 (15% SPI, 0,2% LBG and 15 mM CaCl2), all of them produced at pH 7 and pre-heated at 80 °C for 30 minutes. These systems were also applied for the production of emulsion filled gels thorugh the incorporation of solid lipid microparticles (SLM) of palm stearine, stabilized with tween 80 and span 80. Unfilled and emulsion filled gels were characterized through texture profile analysis, water holding capacity evaluations, scanning electron microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy and rheological tests (small and large deformations). The results showed that the presence of the polysaccharides - XG and LBG - altered in different ways the structural organizations of the SPI gels, however, in both cases, the interactions between the biopolymers resulted in the strengthening of the structures. Besides, it was verified that the SLM incorporated at EFG were active, reinforcing the structures of the different systems analyzed. On the other hand, through the evaluation of encapsulated curcumin stability, it was verified that the bioactive encapsulated in SLM dispersions presented high stability throughout the 60 days of storage, on the other hand, in EFG, the stability of curcumin started to decrease after 15 days of storage. These results are probably related to the structural alterations of EFG, verified through texture profile analysis and water holding capacity evaluations, which led to the collapse of the systems after 30-40 days of storage, indicating that, in all cases, formulation improvements are required.

A curcumina é considerada um composto interessante para a indústria de alimentos por apresentar diversas propriedades bioativas e cor amarela intensa, porém sua elevada hidrofobicidade e instabilidade limitam sua aplicação em grande escala. Uma alternativa para a redução de tais problemas consiste na encapsulação deste bioativo em partículas lipídicas sólidas, que, quando estáveis, podem ser aplicadas para a produção de géis carregados com emulsões. Tais sistemas vêm sendo foco de diversas pesquisas por possibilitarem a obtenção de produtos com diferentes propriedades estruturais e sensoriais, a partir da aplicação combinada de diferentes agentes gelificantes e tensoativos. Nesse contexto, o presente projeto de mestrado teve como principais objetivos: a produção, caracterização e estudo da estabilidade de géis carregados com micropartículas lipídicas sólidas (MLS), produzidos com isolado proteico de soja (IPS) comercial, na presença e ausência de polissacarídeos (goma xantana - GX e goma locusta - GL), bem como a avaliação da estabilidade da curcumina encapsulada nos diferentes sistemas. Para o desenvolvimento desse estudo comparativo, três formulações de géis não-carregados, obtidos a frio, foram selecionadas: formulação G1 (15% IPS, 10 mM CaCl2, na ausência de polissacarídeos), formulação G2 (15% IPS, 0,1% GX e 5 mM de CaCl2) e formulação G3 (15% IPS, 0,2% GL e 15 mM CaCl2), todas em pH 7 e pré-aquecidas a 80 °C por 30 minutos. Tais sistemas foram utilizados também para a produção de géis carregados com MLS de estearina de palma, estabilizadas com tween 80 e span 80. Géis carregados e não-carregados foram adequadamente caracterizados a partir de ensaios de perfil de textura, avaliações da capacidade de retenção de água, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, microscopia confocal de varredura a laser e ensaios reológicos de pequena e grande deformação. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que a presença dos diferentes polissacarídeos alterou de formas distintas a organização estrutural dos géis de IPS, porém, em ambos os casos, as interações entre os biopolímeros resultaram no fortalecimento das estruturas formadas. Além disso, foi verificado que, nos géis carregados, as MLS mostraram-se ativas, fortalecendo a estrutura dos diferentes sistemas analisados. Já a partir do estudo da estabilidade da curcumina encapsulada nos diferentes sistemas, verificou-se que, o bioativo encapsulado em MLS em dispersão apresentou elevada estabilidade ao longo dos 60 dias de armazenamento, por outro lado, em géis carregados, a estabilidade da curcumina foi reduzida após 15 dias de estocagem. Esses resultados estão possivelmente relacionados às alterações estruturais dos géis carregados, verificados a partir de análises de perfil de textura e capacidade de retenção de água, que levaram ao colapso dos sistemas entre os dias 30 e 40 de armazenamento, indicando a necessidade de melhorias nas formulações utilizadas. / Curcumin is considered an interesting compound for the food industry, once it presents many bioactive properties and an intense yellow color, however its high hydrophobicity and instability limit its large-scale application. One of the alternatives applied in order to reduce these problems, consists in encapsulating this bioactive in solid lipid particles, which can also be applied for the production of emulsion filled gels. These systems have been frequently studied, once they allow the obtation of products with different structural and sensory properties, through the combined application of different gelling agents and surfactants. In this context, the objectives of this study were: the production, characterization and evaluation of the stability of cold-set emulsion filled gels, produced with comercial soy protein isolate (SPI), at presence and absence of polysaccharides (xanthan gum - XG and locust bean gum - LBG), and also the evaluation of the stability of encapsulated curcumin at the diferente systems. In order to develop this comparative study, three formulations of cold-set unfilled gels were selected: formulation G1 (15% SPI, 10 mM CaCl2, without polysaccharides), formulation G2 (15% SPI, 0,1% XG e 5 mM de CaCl2) and formulation G3 (15% SPI, 0,2% LBG and 15 mM CaCl2), all of them produced at pH 7 and pre-heated at 80 °C for 30 minutes. These systems were also applied for the production of emulsion filled gels thorugh the incorporation of solid lipid microparticles (SLM) of palm stearine, stabilized with tween 80 and span 80. Unfilled and emulsion filled gels were characterized through texture profile analysis, water holding capacity evaluations, scanning electron microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy and rheological tests (small and large deformations). The results showed that the presence of the polysaccharides - XG and LBG - altered in different ways the structural organizations of the SPI gels, however, in both cases, the interactions between the biopolymers resulted in the strengthening of the structures. Besides, it was verified that the SLM incorporated at EFG were active, reinforcing the structures of the different systems analyzed. On the other hand, through the evaluation of encapsulated curcumin stability, it was verified that the bioactive encapsulated in SLM dispersions presented high stability throughout the 60 days of storage, on the other hand, in EFG, the stability of curcumin started to decrease after 15 days of storage. These results are probably related to the structural alterations of EFG, verified through texture profile analysis and water holding capacity evaluations, which led to the collapse of the systems after 30-40 days of storage, indicating that, in all cases, formulation improvements are required.

Les alginates, des polysaccharides produits par les algues brunes, sont des copolymères à blocs linéaires, formés d’unités mannuronate (M) et guluronate (G). En raison de leur abondance naturelle, prix et propriétés physicochimiques avantageuses, les alginates représentent une classe de biopolymères très intéressante et relativement inexplorée pour des applications dans le domaine des matériaux avancés. Dans ce contexte, le présent travail vise à enrichir la gamme des applications des matériaux dérivés d’alginates, en exploitant les propriétés de cette classe de polysaccharides naturels. En particulier, la préparation de matériaux à base d'alginate pour la catalyse, l'adsorption et le domaine biomédical a été étudiée, avec des résultats encourageants dans toutes les applications testées. L'utilisation bénéfique de l'acide alginique en catalyse hétérogène a été démontrée, en tant que promoteur de réaction et support pour l’hétérogénéisation d'un organocatalyseur. L'activité du catalyseur a été trouvée très dépendante de l'accessibilité des groupes fonctionnels, mettant en évidence l’avantage de l’emploi de formulations plus accessibles. La texturation des alginates a été aussi avantageuse dans la préparation de matériaux pour applications en flux. Des mousses d'acide alginique, avec une structure hiérarchique macro-mésoporeuse, ont été développées à cet effet. Une caractérisation précise des matériaux a été réalisée, afin d'optimiser la procédure de préparation et de corréler les propriétés texturales obtenues avec les paramètres utilisés. L'intérêt dans l’utilisation de mousses à base d'acide alginique a été démontré dans une application modèle, l'adsorption de bleu de méthylène à partir de solutions aqueuses, à la fois en batch et en flux. La possibilité de modifier facilement les groupes fonctionnels de l’alginate, couplée avec la nature biocompatible et biodégradable de ces biopolymères, a finalement été exploitée pour le développement de gels auto-réparants, obtenus grâce à la formation de deux types d'interactions covalentes dynamiques : base de Schiff et ester de boronate. Les deux systèmes examinés ont présenté une remarquable habilité à se reconstruire après un dégât, même si l'ampleur de la reconstruction et la stabilité des gels étaient fortement dépendantes des paramètres de préparation des gels et des conditions environnementales utilisées. Les résultats obtenus dans le cadre de cette étude démontrent clairement comment la compréhension et un emploi conscient des propriétés physico-chimiques des alginates peuvent maximiser le potentiel que cette ressource durable dans le domaine de la chimie des matériaux. / Alginates, polysaccharides produced by brown algae, are linear block-copolymers formed by mannuronate (M) and guluronate (G) units. Because of their huge natural abundance, cheapness and physicochemical properties, alginates represent a highly attractive and still relatively unexplored class of biopolymers for applications in the field of advanced materials. In this context, the present work aimed to enrich the range of possible applications of alginate-derived materials, making the most of the peculiar features of this class of natural polysaccharides. In particular, the preparation of alginate-based active materials to be employed in the catalysis, adsorption and biomedical field was studied, achieving encouraging results in all the tested applications. The beneficial use of alginic acid in heterogeneous catalysis, both as reaction promoter and as support for the heterogeneization of an organocatalyst, was demonstrated. The activity of the material was found highly dependent on the accessibility of the active functions, highlighting the advantage of employing more accessible alginate formulations. The texturation of alginates was further advantageous for the preparation of materials with improved flowability. Alginic acid foams, bearing a hierarchical macro-mesoporous structure were developed by means of a simple procedure. Accurate characterization was performed to optimize the preparation procedure and to correlate the textural properties of the obtained materials with the parameters used. The interest of the prepared alginic acid foams was demonstrated in a model application, the adsorption of methylene blue from aqueous solutions, both in batch and in flow conditions. The possibility to easily modify alginate functional groups, coupled with the biocompatible and biodegradable nature of alginates, was finally employed for the development of self-healing gels, thanks to the formation of two types of dynamic covalent interactions: Schiff base and boronate ester bonds. Both the examined systems presented a marked ability to recover after damage, even if the extent of the recovery and the stability of the gels was highly dependent on the preparation parameters and environmental conditions used. The results obtained in the course of this study clearly demonstrate how a full comprehension and conscious employment of alginate physicochemical properties can maximize the potential of this sustainable resource in the field of material chemistry.

Ce travail est consacré à l'étude, par des techniques originales de diffusion dynamique de la lumière, de la dynamique lente de deux systèmes colloïdaux modèles. On a utilisée une technique de Corrélation Résolue dans le Temps (TRC) et des simulations numériques pour sonder, sur une grande plage de concentrations et sur sept décades en temps de relaxation, la dynamique d'un système de sphères dures colloïdales approchant de la transition vitreuse. A faible fraction volumique les temps de relaxation peuvent être représentés par une loi de puissance critique comme prévu par la Théorie de Couplage des Modes (MCT). A des concentrations élevées le temps de relaxation augmente selon une inattendue loi exponentielle critique avec une fraction volumique critique supérieure à celle prévue par MCT. L'étude des fluctuations de la dynamique confirme la présence d'un régime de dynamique activée: ce scénario est le même que l'on retrouve pour les systèmes vitreux moléculaires. Le deuxième sujet étudié est le comportement d'une suspension de colloïdes attractifs soumis à la contrainte gravitationnelle. Initialement, des agrégats de particules sédimentent en formant un gel sur le fond de la cellule. Les techniques spéciales employées nous ont permis de mesurer l'évolution des profils de concentration, des profils de vitesse et la dynamique locale dans la phase gel: la sédimentation peut être complètement décrite par le taux de déformation locale qui permet aussi une remise à l'échelle de la dynamique locale. Le rôle de la friction aux parois des cellules a été sondé par des expériences de polarimétrie et par la résolution numérique d'un modèle poroélastique pour la sédimentation du gel. / We investigated, using original light scattering techniques, the slow dynamics of two different model colloidal systems. We used a Time Resolved Correlation (TRC) technique and numerical simulations to study the dynamics of systems of colloidal hard spheres over a broad range of densities and seven decades in relaxation time. At low volume fraction the equilibrium relaxation time is described by the algebraic divergence predicted by mode-coupling theory (MCT). At higher density the relaxation time increases with an unexpected critical exponential form, whose the critical volume fraction is much larger then the MCT singularity. The fluctuations of the dynamics confirm the presence of an activated regime, as founded in molecular glass formers close to the glass transition. The second research subject concerns the behaviour of suspensions of attractive colloidal particles under gravitational stress. Initially, clusters fall forming a gelled deposit at the cell bottom. Our apparatus allows us to follow over time the concentration profile, the velocity profile and the local dynamics in the gel phase: the settling may be fully described by the local strain rate and dynamics exhibits remarkable scaling properties when time is normalized by strain rate. The role of the solid friction at the cell walls has been investigated by polarimetry experie nces and solving numerically a poroelastic model of gel sedimentation.

Les ressources renouvelables sont considérées comme des alternatives durables, et parfois moins chères, aux matières premières d'origine pétrochimique. Dans cette thèse, on a utilisé du tanin provenant d’écorces de Mimosa comme précurseur de matériaux carbonés. La synthèse de ces nouveaux matériaux carbonés comprend un processus en deux étapes: la première étape est un traitement hydrothermal à des températures modérées, de 180 à 200°C, ce qui permet l'enrichissement en carbone ainsi que la fixation des hétéroatomes et la production de différentes morphologies: microsphères ou gels. La deuxième étape est une carbonisation à une température plus élevée, à savoir 900°C, ce qui permet d'augmenter la surface spécifique, la porosité ainsi que la conductivité électrique. La préparation d’un carbone poreux présentant des mésopores parfaitement définis en taille et dans leur organisation a été réalisée en associant le tanin, précurseur de carbone, à un tensio-actif structurant de la porosité, le copolymère Pluronic F127. Ces nouveaux matériaux carbonés ont été testés comme des électrodes de supercondensateur / Renewable resources are considered as sustainable, and sometimes cheaper, alternatives to substitute raw materials of petrochemical origin. We used tannins extracted from Mimosa barks. Tannin is an attractive precursor to synthesize new organic porous materials due to the presence of highly reactive phenolic molecules. The synthesis of these new carbon materials from tannin comprises a two-step process: the first step is a hydrothermal carbonization at moderate temperatures, 180-200°C, which allows obtaining a hydrochar, richer in carbon, and fixing other heteroatoms. These hydrochars present different morphologies as powder or gel. The second step is a carbonization at higher temperature (900°C), which allows increasing surface area (SBET), porosity as well as improving conductivity. The preparation of a porous carbon presenting mesopores perfectly defined in size and in their organization was realized by associating tannin, as carbon precursor, with a surfactant for porosity templating, the copolymer Pluronic F127. These new carbon materials were tested as electrodes of supercapacitor