The adaptor subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinases (PI3K), p85, is involved in many different biological processes. Recent studies have shown that one of these functions is to serve as a GTPase activating protein (GAP) towards Rab5, a small monomeric G-protein. Rab5, like other G-proteins, can bind to either GDP or GTP in vivo, assuming its inactive and active form, respectively. The p85 protein has been shown to associate with both the nucleotide-bound and nucleotide-free states of Rab5. It has also been shown that p85 associates with activated, phosphorylated platelet-derived growth factor receptors (PDGFRs) via its two SH2 domains, and that upon binding there is a conformational change in the p85 protein which leads to a derepression of p110 kinase activity. The purpose of this study was to analyze if binding of the activated PDGFR peptides to p85 affects its Rab5GAP activity, as well as to measure the binding affinity of p85 towards Rab5 in each of its nucleotide-bound states. GAP assays were performed to measure the effect that peptide analogs of both the activated and inactivated PDGFR had on p85 Rab5GAP activity, while the binding affinity of p85 towards Rab5 was measured using surface plasmon resonance. The results of this study suggest that PDGFR peptides have no significant effect on p85 Rab5GAP activity. Furthermore, p85 appears to have a higher magnitude of binding to nucleotide-associated Rab5 proteins, than nucleotide-free Rab5 proteins. It also appears that p85 forms more stable complexes with Rab5-GTP than with Rab5-GDP. These results further support previous studies that show p85 to be an important regulator of Rab5-mediated endosomal fusion and show that this activity is not regulated by binding to the activated PDGFR itself.

Cilia and flagella are sensory organelles, found in the majority of eukaryotic organisms that play a vital role in the general physiology, health and early development of humans. Intraflagellar transport (IFT) is tasked with building and maintaining the entire ciliary structure by facilitating the transport of axonemal precursors, trafficking of ciliary membrane proteins and turnover products. Currently, there are no complete models detailing how ciliated organisms regulate the entry and exit of IFT particles, a multi-meric adaptor complex that ferries flagellar proteins. In this thesis, I focus on small Rab-like protein IFT22, an IFT-particle integrated protein with predicted GTPase activity, as a potential regulatory component of IFT particle trafficking in Chlamydomonas. Using an artificial microRNAs strategy, I show that IFT22 regulates the available cellular pool of IFT particles and the distribution profile of the IFT particles between the cytoplasm and the flagellar compartment. Additionally, I demonstrate how the putative constitutive active mutant of IFT22 is able properly localize to the peri-basal body and enter the flagellar compartment using immunofluorescence and immunoblot analysis of flagella extracts. Finally, preliminary RNAi data suggests IFT25 the IFT particle/motor/BBSome assembly downstream of IFT22 regulation, evident from the depletion of kinesin-2 subunit FLA10, IFT-dynein-2 subunit D1bLIC and BBsome component BBS3from whole cell extracts of IFT25 knockdown transformants.

Rho GTPases are critical regulators of actin cytoskeletal dynamics. The three most well characterized Rho GTPases, Rac1, RhoA and Cdc42 share a common inhibitor, RhoGDI. It is only recently becoming clear how upstream signals cause the selective release of individual Rho GTPases from RhoGDI. For example, our laboratory showed that diacylglycerol kinase zeta (DGKz), which converts diacylglycerol (DAG) to phosphatidic acid (PA), activates PAK1-mediated RhoGDI phosphorylation on Ser-101/174, causing selective Rac1 release and activation. Phosphorylation of RhoGDI on Ser-34 by PKCa has recently been demonstrated to selectively release RhoA, promoting RhoA activation. Here, I show DGKz is required for optimal RhoA activation and RhoGDI Ser-34 phosphorylation. Both were substantially reduced in DGKz-null fibroblasts and occurred independently of DGKz activity, but required a function DGKz PDZ-binding motif. In contrast, Rac1 activation required DGKz-derived PA, but not PDZ-interactions, indicating DGKz regulates these Rho GTPases by two distinct regulatory complexes. Interestingly, RhoA bound directly to the DGKz C1A domain, the same region known to bind Rac1. By direct interactions with RhoA and PKCa, DGKz was required for the efficient co-precipitation of these proteins, suggesting it is important to assemble a signalling complex that functions as a RhoA-specific RhoGDI dissociation complex. Consequently, cells lacking DGKz exhibited decreased RhoA signalling downstream and disrupted stress fibers. Moreover, DGKz loss resulted in decreased stress fiber formation following the expression of a constitutively active RhoA mutant, suggesting it is also important for RhoA function following activation. This is consistent with the ability of DGKz to bind both active and inactive RhoA conformations. Collectively, these findings suggest DGKz is central to two distinct Rho GTPase activation complexes, each having different requirements for DGKz activity and PDZ interactions, and might regulate the balance of Rac1 and RhoA activity during dynamic changes to the actin cytoskeleton.

L'élongation embryonnaire contrôle la transformation embryonnaire de C. elegans qui passe d'un embryon ovoïde à une larve vermiforme. C'est un modèle idéal pour la dissection de voies de signalisation qui contrôlent la morphogénèse des tissus et l'intégration de ces signaux dans les diverses couches cellulaires. L'élongation peut être divisée en deux parties : l'élongation précoce qui implique la contraction de l'hypoderme, alors que l'élongation tardive implique l'action synergique des muscles et de l'hypoderme. La contraction des filaments d'actines est régulée par le niveau de phosphorylation des chaînes légères de la myosine (mlc-4). Les GTPases Rho sont des protéines de signalisation régulées par l'action de 3 familles protéiques : les « GTPase-activating proteins » (GAPs), les « Guanine nucléotide exchange factors » (GEFs) et les « Guanine nucléotide dissociation inhibitors » (GDI). Les GTPases Rho contrôlent un large éventail de processus biologiques. Il y a trois GTPases Rho qui contrôlent l'élongation de C. elegans. Notre laboratoire a identifié une quatrième GTPase contrôlant l'élongation, CDC-42 et son régulateur, RGA-7. CDC-42 a été associée à la polymérisation de filaments d'actines dans les évènements de polarisation, de migration et de trafic membranaire (Harris KP. et Ulrich Tepass U., 2010). Nos résultats suggèrent que le gène rga-7 coderait pour trois formes protéiques résultant d'une initiation alternative de la transcription et que ces trois protéines seraient impliquées dans le contrôle de l'élongation. La délétion ok1498 induit un phénotype de létalité embryonnaire ayant une pénétrance variant entre 25 et 30%. Cette létalité est le résultat d'hypercontractions dorsales pendant l'élongation. L'activité catalytique du domaine GAP de rga-7 a révélé une affinité élevée pour la GTPases CDC-42 et faible pour les GTPases RHO-1 et MIG-2. Des analyses d'épistasies suggèrent que rga-7 contrôlerait l'activité de cdc-42 ainsi que de ses effecteurs wsp-1 et mrck-1 au cours de l'élongation. Nous émettons l'hypothèse que rga-7 pourrait contrôler la dynamique du recyclage des jonctions adhérentes (cadhérines) comme son orthologue humain probable PARG1, hypothèse que nous testerons lors d'études subséquentes. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : RGA-7, élongation, CDC-42, endocytose, GTPases, signalisation cellulaire, développement embryonnaire, filaments d'actine, jonctions adhérentes.

Glioblastoma (GB) is the highest grade and most common form of primary adult brain tumors, characterized by a highly invasive cell population. GB tumors develop treatment resistance and ultimately recur; the median survival is nearly fifteen months and importantly, the invading cell population is attributed with having a decreased sensitivity to therapeutics. Thus, there remains a necessity to identify the genetic and signaling mechanisms that promote tumor spread and therapeutic resistance in order to develop new targeted treatment strategies to combat this rapidly progressive disease. TWEAK-Fn14 ligand-receptor signaling is one mechanism in GB that promotes cell invasiveness and survival, and is dependent upon the activity of multiple Rho GTPases including Rac1. Here, we show that Cdc42 is essential in Fn14-mediated Rac1 activation. We identified two guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs), Ect2 and Trio, involved in the TWEAK-induced activation of Cdc42 and Rac1, respectively, as well as in the subsequent TWEAK-Fn14 directed glioma cell migration and invasion. In addition, we characterized the role of SGEF in promoting Fn14-induced Rac1 activation. SGEF, a RhoG-specific GEF, is overexpressed in GB tumors and promotes TWEAK-Fn14-mediated glioma invasion. Moreover, we characterized the correlation between SGEF expression and TMZ resistance, and defined a role for SGEF in promoting the survival of glioma cells. SGEF mRNA and protein expression are regulated by the TWEAK-Fn14 signaling axis in an NF-kB dependent manner and inhibition of SGEF expression sensitizes glioma cells to TMZ treatment. Lastly, gene expression analysis of SGEF depleted GB cells revealed altered expression of a network of DNA repair and survival genes. Thus TWEAK-Fn14 signaling through the GEF-Rho GTPase systems which include the Ect2, Trio, and SGEF activation of Cdc42 and/or Rac1 presents a pathway of attractive drug targets in glioma therapy, and SGEF signaling represents a novel target in the setting of TMZ refractory, invasive GB cells.

Little is known about the outward trafficking of receptor dimers from the endoplasmic reticulum to the plasma membrane, or the role that trafficking plays in assembly, targeting and specificity of receptor signalling. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation was used to follow prescribed receptor homo/heterodimers in Jurkat cells and clarify the trafficking itineraries those receptors follow to reach the plasma membrane. Chemokine receptors CXCR4 and CCR5 were chosen due to their implication in numerous pathologies including, HIV and cancer, and their ability to form homo and hetero-oligomers. This study demonstrates that although the individual receptors composing heterodimeric complexes are the same as in homodimeric complexes, the heterodimer traffics and signals independently of its constituent homodimers. The presence of CD4 affects the trafficking of CCR5 containing dimers but not the CXCR4 homodimer. These observations demonstrate the importance of considering receptor heterodimers as distinct signalling entities that should be more carefully and individually characterized.

Polar body emission (PBE), a form of asymmetric division, occurs twice during vertebrate oocyte maturation and is required to produce a haploid egg for sexual reproduction. Our lab elucidated parts of the mechanism that regulates PBE in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Cdc42 and RhoA, two GTPases, were shown to mediate membrane protrusion and the contractile ring, respectively. It is believed that cdc42 is mediating the protrusion by regulating actin polymerization. However, it is not clear what upstream signaling pathway regulates cdc42 activation during PBE. One possibility is calcium signaling, which occurs at fertilization, and is required for second PBE. Interestingly, the fertilization calcium transient also regulates cortical granule exocytosis/membrane retrieval, a process that also involves cdc42-mediated actin assembly. Furthermore, active cdc42 and RhoA are found in non-overlapping concentric zones in single-cell wound healing; their activation requires calcium signaling. To determine possible calcium transients during polar body emission, we employed the calcium-binding C2 domain of PKCβ in live cell imaging. Surprisingly, the most prominent C2 signal was seen after cdc42 activation and membrane protrusion. Co-localization experiments indicated that the C2 signal appeared at the cortical area marked by the contractile ring component anillin, and after partial constriction of the ring. Injection of the calcium chelator, dibromo-BAPTA, abolished the C2 signal, suggesting that it is indeed depicting a calcium transient. Dibromo-BAPTA injection also inhibited polar body abscission, as assessed by a novel abscission assay developed in our lab. We have for the first time detected a calcium signal during PBE that is essential to the last step of cytokinesis—abscission.

Rho GTPases are critical regulators of actin cytoskeletal dynamics. The three most well characterized Rho GTPases, Rac1, RhoA and Cdc42 share a common inhibitor, RhoGDI. It is only recently becoming clear how upstream signals cause the selective release of individual Rho GTPases from RhoGDI. For example, our laboratory showed that diacylglycerol kinase zeta (DGKz), which converts diacylglycerol (DAG) to phosphatidic acid (PA), activates PAK1-mediated RhoGDI phosphorylation on Ser-101/174, causing selective Rac1 release and activation. Phosphorylation of RhoGDI on Ser-34 by PKCa has recently been demonstrated to selectively release RhoA, promoting RhoA activation. Here, I show DGKz is required for optimal RhoA activation and RhoGDI Ser-34 phosphorylation. Both were substantially reduced in DGKz-null fibroblasts and occurred independently of DGKz activity, but required a function DGKz PDZ-binding motif. In contrast, Rac1 activation required DGKz-derived PA, but not PDZ-interactions, indicating DGKz regulates these Rho GTPases by two distinct regulatory complexes. Interestingly, RhoA bound directly to the DGKz C1A domain, the same region known to bind Rac1. By direct interactions with RhoA and PKCa, DGKz was required for the efficient co-precipitation of these proteins, suggesting it is important to assemble a signalling complex that functions as a RhoA-specific RhoGDI dissociation complex. Consequently, cells lacking DGKz exhibited decreased RhoA signalling downstream and disrupted stress fibers. Moreover, DGKz loss resulted in decreased stress fiber formation following the expression of a constitutively active RhoA mutant, suggesting it is also important for RhoA function following activation. This is consistent with the ability of DGKz to bind both active and inactive RhoA conformations. Collectively, these findings suggest DGKz is central to two distinct Rho GTPase activation complexes, each having different requirements for DGKz activity and PDZ interactions, and might regulate the balance of Rac1 and RhoA activity during dynamic changes to the actin cytoskeleton.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Univ., 2003. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a progressive disorder, in which the primary injury results in the initiation of a complex cascade of secondary biochemical and metabolic changes resulting in lasting neurological dysfunction and cognitive impairment. The heterogeneous nature of the disease has complicated the development of pharmacological agents to improve the outcomes of TBI; to date, no therapeutic treatment has been shown to be effective in clinical trials. Treatments targeting multiple secondary outcomes (cell death, axonal degeneration, and inflammation) may provide enhanced therapeutic efficacy following TBI. Small Ras family GTP-binding proteins govern diverse cellular processes by directing the relay of extracellular stimuli to the activation of select intracellular signaling pathways. Rin (RIT2) is a member of the Rit subfamily of Ras-related family of GTPases, and is expressed solely within neurons of the CNS. Early cell culture models demonstrated that Rin signaled upstream of the stress-activated protein kinase, p38, and lacked the transformative abilities displayed by other members of the Ras family, suggesting functions for Rin other than cell growth and proliferation. To begin to define the physiological function of Rin, we generated a RIT2 knockout mouse and examined the impact of Rin loss in the CNS following brain trauma. Our data demonstrates that Rin deficiency is neuroprotective following a controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury, reducing both acute hippocampal neurodegeneration and promoting sustained neuronal survival, without affecting post-CCI neurogenesis. Hippocampal neuroprotection achieved by Rin loss was accompanied by improved cognitive function in injured mice. Furthermore, we demonstrated that Rin loss led to blunting of axonal degeneration and microglial activation in the optic nerve following optic nerve stretch injury. The molecular interaction between Rin and dual leucine zipper kinase suggested a potential role for Rin in the regulation of a novel stress MAPK-dependent neuronal death cascade. Lastly, we demonstrated through diffuse closed head injury, that Rin loss mitigates cytokine release as a result of injury without altering glial activation. Together, these studies establish Rin as a novel regulator of neuronal cell death, cognitive decline, axonal degeneration, and cytokine production following traumatic brain injury.