Μελετάμε θεωρητικά το φάσμα εκπομπής και την δημιουργία υψηλών αρμονικών σε ημιαγώγιμη κβαντική δομή, παρουσία εξωτερικών ηλεκτρομαγνητικών πεδίων τα οποία αλληλεπιδρούν με δύο υποζώνες του κβαντικού συστήματος. Στην μελέτη μας λαμβάνουμε υπόψη το φαινόμενο της αλληλεπίδρασης ηλεκτρονίου-ηλεκτρονίου. Για την περιγραφή της δυναμικής του συστήματος χρησιμοποιούμε τις μη γραμμικές διαφορικές εξισώσεις των στοιχείων του πίνακα πυκνότητας, στα πλαίσια της προσέγγισης περιστρεφόμενου πεδίου. Οι διαφορικές εξισώσεις της μήτρας πυκνότητας λύνονται αριθμητικά για κβαντικό πηγάδι GaAs/GaAlAs. Δείχνουμε ότι το φάσμα εκπομπής και η δημιουργία υψηλών αρμονικών εξαρτάται από τα γεομετρικά χαρακτηριστκά της δομής, από τις παραμέτρους του εξωτερικού πεδίου (συχνότητα και ένταση), και από την επιφανειακή πυκνότητα ηλεκτρονίων. / We study theoretically the emission spectrum and the generation of high harmonics in a two-subband system in a semiconductor quantum well structure. In our study we take into account the effects of electron-electron interactions and consider the interaction of the two-subband system with external electromagnetic fields. For the description of the system dynamics we use the nonlinear differential equations of the density matrix elements, under the rotating wave approximation. These equations are solved numerically for a GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well structure. We show that the emission spectrum and the generation of high harmonics depends on the geometrical characteristics of the system, the external parameters (frequency and intensity of the applied fields) and on the electron sheet density.

Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) are well established as sub-Poissonian sources of entangled photon pairs. To improve the utility of a QD light source, it would be advantageous to extend their emission further into the near infrared, into the low absorption wavelength windows utilised in long-haul optical telecommunication. Initial experiments succeeded in interfering O-band (1260—1360 nm) photons from an InAs/GaAs QD with dissimilar photons from a laser, an important mechanism for quantum teleportation. Interference visibilities as high as 60 ± 6 % were recorded, surpassing the 50 % threshold imposed by classical electrodynamics. Later, polarisation-entanglement of a similar QD was observed, with pairs of telecom-wavelength photons from the radiative cascade of the biexciton state exhibiting fidelities of 92.0 ± 0.2 % to the Bell state. Subsequently, an O-band telecom-wavelength quantum relay was realised. Again using an InAs/GaAs QD device, this represents the first implementation of a sub-Poissonian telecom-wavelength quantum relay, to the best knowledge of the author. The relay proved capable of implementing the famous four-state BB84 protocol, with a mean teleportation fidelity as high as 94.5 ± 2.2 %, which would contribute 0.385 secure bits per teleported qubit. After characterisation by way of quantum process tomography, the performance of the relay was also evaluated to be capable of implementing a six-state QKD protocol. In an effort to further extend the emitted light from a QD into the telecom C-band (1530—1565 nm), alternative material systems were investigated. InAs QDs on a substrate of InP were shown to emit much more readily in the fibre-telecom O- and C-bands than their InAs/GaAs counterparts, largely due to the reduced lattice mismatch between the QD and substrate for InAs/InP (~3 %) compared to InAs/GaAs (~7 %). Additionally, to minimize the fine structure splitting (FSS) of the exciton level, which deteriorates the observed polarisation-entanglement, a new mode of dot growth was investigated. Known as droplet epitaxy (D-E), QDs grown in this mode showed a fourfold reduction in the FSS compared to dots grown in the Stranski-Krastanow mode. This improvement would allow observation of polarisation-entanglement in the telecom C-band. In subsequent work performed by colleagues at the Toshiba Cambridge Research Labs, these D-E QDs were embedded in a p-i-n doped optical cavity, processed with electrical contacts, and found to emit entangled pairs of photons under electrical excitation. The work of this thesis provides considerable technological advances to the field of entangled-light sources, that in the near future may allow for deterministic quantum repeaters operating at megahertz rates, and in the further future could facilitate the distribution of coherent multipartite states across a distributed quantum network.

Ces travaux de thèse portent sur l‟étude de filtres « multi-fonctions » dont l‟objectif serait de réduire les dimensions des circuits réalisant les fonctions de filtrage dans les systèmes aéroportés. Ces travaux ont donc conduit à la réalisation de filtres large bande (2 – 18 GHz) réjecteurs développés en technologie MMIC utilisant la filière GaN, ainsi que des filtres large bande développés suivant la filière AsGa en technologie MMIC. Les différents filtres réjecteurs ont été conçus suivant deux principes :- Le premier basé sur une structure à résonateurs à lignes couplées. Les différents prototypes réalisés ont permis de montrer l‟accordabilité en fréquence grâce à une charge variable placée à l‟extrémité non court-circuité de la ligne couplée. Celle-ci peut être réalisée par une diode varactor ou par un transistor froid. Ces prototypes ont également permis de montrer la possibilité de fonctionner suivant un mode passe-tout ou un mode réjecteur par simple polarisation de transistors chargés à l‟extrémité de la ligne couplée.- Le second est basé sur l‟accordabilité de filtres actifs par commutation entre plusieurs canaux à l‟aide d‟une structure distribuée. Un prototype a été développé et réalisé en technologie AsGa. Cette structure permet à la fois une accordabilité en fréquences, ainsi qu‟en largeur de bande passante (par activation de plusieurs canaux de bandes passantes adjacentes), et une adaptation large bande. Cette structure réunit à la fois des fonctions d‟accordabilité en fréquences (entre 8,7 et 15,6 GHz) par polarisation d‟éléments actifs, ceux-ci permettant même d‟obtenir du gain (de l‟ordre de 10 dB). / The aim of this work is to study “multi-functions” filters with an objective to reduce the dimensions of the circuits used for filtering functions in airborne systems. This work allows to obtain wide band notch filters (from 2 to 18 GHz) developed in MMIC technology using theEtude de Filtres MMIC Hyperfréquences en Technologies GaN et AsGa. 152GaN process and wide band filters developed in GaAs technology. The notch filters have been realized with two principles:- The first one based on coupled lines resonators structure. The prototype manufactured allow to validate the frequency tunability thanks to a variable load placed at the end of the coupled line. This can be realized with a varactor diode or with a cold transistor. These prototypes allow also validating the possibility for the circuit to work as an “allpass” filter or as a notch filter by applying a bias voltage on the transistors placed at the end of the coupled line.- The second one is based on the tenability of active filters by commuting between several channels thanks to a distributed structure. A prototype has been developed and manufactured in GaAs technology. This structure allow a frequency tunability with also the possibility to tune the bandwidth (by activating seeral channels with edge bandwidth), and a wide band matching. This structure allows to obtain frequency tunability (between 8.7 and 15.6 GHz) by applying a bias voltage on the active elements which brin gain (around 10 dB).

This project is concerned with both the study of different Multiple Quantum Wells (MQWs) structures using the In0.53Ga0.47As/In0.52Al0.48As material system lattice matched to InP and a systematic investigation of the properties of InAs QD systems within GaAs with the aim of achieving enhancements of solar cell performance. The key challenge is the growth of QDs solar cell structures which exhibit sufficient absorption (enhanced infrared absorption) to increase short circuit current density (Jsc) but which can still maintains a high open circuit voltage (Voc). The research consists of epitaxial growth using state-of–the-art MBE, optical absorption, photoluminescence and high resolution x-ray diffraction measurements as well as device fabrication and characterization of novel solar cell structures. Optimization was performed on these novel cells to further improve their efficiency by inserting stacks of QD into different regions of the device. The effect of localized doping of such structures was used in an attempt to maintain and enhance the open-circuit voltage which in turn increases the device efficiency. The fabricated devices were characterized using measurements of the dark/light current-voltage (I-V) characteristics and spectral response (50-480 K). Solar cell external quantum efficiencies under standard air mass (AM) 1.5 spectrum were determined and the suitability of these new cells under solar concentration were assessed. Full physical simulations are performed using SILVACO semiconductors modelling software to generate models of multi-junction solar cells that were crucial in informing iterations to growth and fabrication and help to reconcile theory with experiment. One of the key findings, of this thesis, is the fact that Intermediate band photovoltaic devices using material based on InAs/GaAs vertically stacked quantum dot arrays, can be used in applications according to specific configuration criteria such as high temperature operation conditions. The intermediate band cell, including an inter-dot doped configuration, has been found to be a potential candidate as the inter dot doping profile reduces the efficiency degradation below the GaAs values including an enhancement in the open circuit voltage. It has been proved that these devices not only have a good performance at high temperatures but also by changing the vertical stacking QD layer periodicity can enhance the short circuit current density while keeping a large open circuit voltage. It was confirmed in practical device operation that thermal energy is required to enable the intermediate band in InAs/GaAs QD materials. The impact of this works can help in the future improvements of the intermediate band solar cells based on InAs on GaAs QD. The best overall efficiency of 11.6 % obtained in this work is an excellent value for so simple devices configuration. The Si3N4, tested for the first time on InAs/GaAs QD materials, reduces the reflectance on the device surface to a value of 2% and the operational wavelength can be tuned by controlling the layer thickness. A 100 nm Si3N4 antireflective coating proved to be an excellent coating from 700 to 1000 nm. In terms of short circuit current density a 37% enhancement was achieved.

Physical systems having dimensions smaller than, or of the same order of magnitude as, the characteristic length scale relevant to a physical property are referred to as mesoscopic physical systems. Due to the dimensions of the system, several physical properties get affected and this could reveal interesting physics which would other-wise have not been apparent. In the recent times, a lot interesting applications have resulted from such studies. The fundamental length scale in ferromagnetic systems is the exchange length. It is related to the magnetic anisotropy and exchange constants. Other length scales such as the size of a magnetic domain or a domain wall depends on the minimisation of energy associated with this length scale along with other factors such as zeeman energy, magnetostatic, magnetoelastic and anisotropy energies. Ultrathin magnetic films have thickness smaller than the exchange length. In this thickness regime, the surface of the film plays an important role. The magnetic anisotropy energy would get a significant contribution from the surface of the film and if it dominates over the volume contribution, would eventually lead to magnetisation pointing out of the plane of the film as opposed to imposition of demagnetising fields. Examples for such cases are FePt(L10 phase) films and Co(0001) films. Such films are important in memory applications where perpendicularly magnetised recording media are desired. When the lateral dimensions of thin films are reduced, demagnetising fields become even more important. Depending on the anisotropy in the system, certain domain patterns get stabilised in the final structure. This has led to important applications in the field of magnonics. The use of angular momentum transfer from spin polarised electrons to change the configuration of magnetisation of structured magnetic films has led to interesting memory and oscillator applications. The underlying physical parameter that needs to be controlled and carefully studied in all these cases is the magnetic anisotropy. It is favourable to have uniaxial magnetic anisotropy for memory and oscillators. This thesis chiefly deals with Fe/GaAs(001) systems. The choice of the physical system follows interest in spintronics where spin injection is desired into a semiconductor from a ferromagnet. The thesis is organized into chapters as follows. Chapter 1 attempts to introduce the reader to some of the basic concepts of mag-netism and some magnetic phenomena. The characteristic nature of a ferro-magnetic material is its spontaneous magnetisation due to long range ordering below the Curie temperature. But the moment is coupled, through some in-teractions, to spatial co-ordinates which leads to spatial variation of magnetic properties. Such interactions are also responsible for the formation of magnetic domains. The spatial variation of magnetic properties within a ferromagnet is called magnetic anisotropy. A major part of the thesis deals with the study of magnetic anisotropy of Fe thin films grown on GaAs(001) substrates. For a better understanding, the structure of the semiconductor is introduced first before discussing the influence of the structure of GaAs on the growth of Fe. A short description of the uniaxial magnetic anisotropy in Fe films is given before starting on an exploration of some possible reasons for it. Concepts of ferromagnetic resonance, spin torque effect and micromagnetic simulations are given. Chapter 2 gives a brief description of some of the experimental apparatus that was setup during the course of the research along with an overview of the differ-ent sample preparation and characterisation techniques used. The chapter is organised according to the general functionality of the techniques. Some con-cepts such as the use of low energy electrons, nanostructuring etc are introduced along with the corresponding techniques since it is best understood along with the instrumentation. Chapter 3 reports some surprising findings about the in-plane magnetic anisotropy in Fe films grown on an MgO underlayer. Until now, it has been understood that such films should exhibit only a four-fold magnetic anisotropy within the plane of the film. But the Fe/MgO/GaAs(001) films studied here exhibited an in-plane uniaxial magnetic anisotropy(IPUMA). IPUMA is dominant upto about 25 ML of Fe in case of Fe/MgO/GaAs(001) films whereas, in Fe/GaAs(001) films it is dominant only upto about 15 ML. Thus, the presence of the MgO film even appeared to enhance the uniaxial anisotropy as compared to the Fe/GaAs(001) films. In the ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) spectra, as many as three peaks were observed in Fe/GaAs(001) films of thickness 50 ML close to the hard axis of magnetisation. This means that three could be three energy minima possibly due to a competition between the anisotropies involved. Chapter 4 elaborates the investigations of the effect of orientation and doping con-centration of the GaAs substrate on the magnetic anisotropy of Fe/GaAs(001) films. It is found that doping the substrate (n type) reduces the strength of the IPUMA in Fe/GaAs films. In the wake of the long-standing debate of electronic structure v/s stress as the origin of the IPUMA in Ferromagnet/Semiconductor films, this result is important because it implies that the electronic structure of the Fe/GaAs interface influences the magnetic anisotropy. But stress, as a cause of IPUMA cannot be ruled out. The influence of deposition techniques on magnetic anisotropy is also investigated. Chapter 5 presents a way of manipulating magnetic anisotropy, and hence mag-netisation dynamics, by nanostructuring of epitaxial Fe films. It is based on the property that magnetic anisotropy of Fe films is thickness dependent. It is demonstrated that using techniques of nanostructuring, a 2 dimensional mag-netic system with controllable variation of local magnetic anisotropy is created. Such a system could be a potential magnonic crystal. chapter 6 demonstrates the proof of concept of a new memory device where memory is stored in the magnetic domain configuration of a ring in relation to that of a nano-wire. Switching between the memory states is acheived through spin trasfer torque of an electric current passing through the device, whereas read-out of the memory state is through the measurement of resistance of the device. Devices are made using NiFe and Co; it is seen that the behaviour of the devices can be explained taking into account the anisotropic magnetoresistance of the material used. Finally, the various results are summarised and a broad outlook is given. Some possible future research related to the topics dealt within this thesis is discussed.

In dieser Arbeit wurden die Strom-Spannungs- und Kapazitäts-Spannungs-Kennlinien von Ag/n-GaAs(100) Schottky-Dioden untersucht, wobei die Kennlinien durch organische Zwischenschichten verschiedener Dicke modifiziert werden. Dazu wird der organische Halbleiter 3,4,9,10- Perylentetracarboxyldianhydrid (PTCDA) verwendet. Die PTCDA-Schichten werden mittels Organischer Molekularstrahldeposition (OMBD) hergestellt. Die Charakterisierung der Ag/PTCDA/GaAs-Dioden erfolgte sowohl in situ als auch ex situ.

Bibliografische Beschreibung, Referat und Schlagwörter M.S. Chem. Ing. Sung Gook Park Thema: Organic Modified GaAs Schottky Contacts Einreichungsdatum: 28. September 2001 Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden organische Halbleitermaterialien verwendet, um damit die Transporteigenschaften von Metal/GaAs(100) Schottky-Kontakten zu kontrollieren. Ziel ist es, Strom-Spannungs- (J-V) und Kapazitäts-Spannungs-Kennenlien (C-V) zu verstehen. Zur chemischen und elektronischen Charakterisierung der GaAs(100)-Oberflächen, organische Molekül/GaAs(100)-Grenzflächen und der Metall/organische Molekül-Grenzflächen wurden die Photoelektronenspektroskopie (PES) und Nahkantenröntgenabsorptionsspektroskopie (NEXAFS) eingesetzt. Verschiedene GaAs(100)-Oberflächen, wie die reine GaAs(100)-c(4x4)-, die Wasserstoff-Plasma behandelte GaAs(100)- und die chalkogenpassivierte GaAs-Oberflächen, wurden als Substrate für die organische Molekularstrahldeposition (OMBD) verwendet. In der Arbeit wird der Einfluss der chemischen und elektronischen Eigenschaften dieser Substratoberflächen auf das Wachstum von organischen Molekülen auf deren Oberflächen untersucht. 3,4,9,10-Perylentetracarboxylic Dianhydrid (PTCDA) und Dimethyl-3,4,9,10-Perylentetracarboxyl Diimid wurden zur organischen Modifizierung von Metall/GaAs(100)-Schottky-Kontakten verwendet. Die organischen Moleküle werden anfänglich an Defekten der GaAs(100)-Oberflächen adsorbiert. Die Adsorption an Defekten führt zu einer Reduktion der inhomogenen Bandverbiegung der GaAs(100)-Oberfläche. Aus den PES-Spektren wurden Energiebanddiagramme für organische Schicht/GaAs(100)-Grenzflächen und Metall/organische Grenzflächen abgeleitet. Entsprechend der relativen energetischen Lagen des Leitungsbandminimums von GaAs(100)-Oberflächen und des niedrigsten unbesetzten Molekülorbitals der organischen Schichten werden Interfacedipole ausgebildet. Die Verwendung von anorganischen Substraten mit systematisch variierender Elektronenaffinität (EA) stellt eine neue Methode zur Bestimmung des Transportniveaus von Elektronen in der organischen Schicht dar. Bei Einfügung von dünnen PTCDA-Schichten zwischen Ag-Elektrode und GaAs(100)-Oberfläche, wurde beobachtet, dass die J-V-Kennlinien in Abhängigkeit von der Dicke der organischen Schicht und der Behandlung der GaAs-Oberflächen systematisch variierte. Dieses Verhalten kann unter Verwendung des Energieniveaudiagramms, das mittels PES bestimmt wurde, und durch eine Barrierenerniedrigung infolge von Bildkräften gut erklärt werden. Durch die Kombination von Oberflächenbehandlung und Einfügen einer dünnen definierten organischen Schicht kann die effektive Barrierenhöhe in einem breiten Bereich verändert, d. h. letztendlich definiert eingestellt und kontrolliert werden. Daraus ergibt sich die Möglichkeit, die Leistungsaufnahme von GaAs-Schottky-Kontakten zu reduzieren. <Schlagwörter> Organische Moleküle, Organische Molekularstrahldeposition (OMBD), GaAs(100), Metall/Hableiter- Schottky-Kontakt, Photoemissionspektroskopie (PES), Nahkantenröntgenabsorptionsspektroskopie (NEXAFS), Elektrische Messungen

Der Einfluss der Modifikation der technologisch relevanten GaAs(100) Oberfläche durch Chalkogene, i.e. Selen, Schwefel und Tellur, wird in dieser Arbeit untersucht. Es wird ein Modell vorgestellt, das die Eigenschaften der modifizierten Oberfläche beschreibt. In einem zweiten Schritt werden die so modifizierten Oberflächen mit Metallen unterschiedlicher Reaktivität und verschiedenen Elektronegativitäten bedampft. Die Bandbreite dieser Eigenschaften wird durch die Metalle Indium und Silber, das Alkalimetall Natrium, das Erdalkalimetall Magnesium und das Halbmetall Antimon abgebildet. Die Untersuchung des Einflusses der Chalkogene auf die chemischen Eigenschaften und die Barrierenhöhe der Metall/GaAs(100) Grenzfläche bilden einen weiteren Schwerpunkt. Die Änderung der Barrierenhöhe wird dabei mit Hilfe des Modells metallinduzierter Bandlückenzustände (metal induced gap states) erklärt. Als experimentelle Techniken werden Photoemissionsspektroskopie, Raman Spektroskopie und Strom-Spannungsmessungen verwendet. / The influence of a modification of the technological relevant GaAs(100) surface by chalcogens, i.e. selenium, sulphur and tellurium, is evaluated in this work. A model is proposed, which describes the properties of the modified surface. In a second step metals of different reactivity and electronegativity have been evaporated onto these modified surfaces. Among these materials were the metals indium and silver, the alkali metal sodium, the earth alkali metal magnesium and the half metal antimony. The investigation of the influence of chalcogens on the chemical properties and the barrier height of the metal/GaAs(100) interface is another point of interest. The change in barrier height is explained by the model of metal induced gap states (MIGS). Photoemission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and current-voltage-measurement have been used as experimental techniques.

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Dans un monde où l’information va de plus en plus vite, il est important de pouvoir rester connecté en permanence. De nouvelles solutions émergent pour connecter les passagers à bord d’un avion grâce aux communications par satellite. Parmi elles, on retrouve les antennes à pointage électronique dans lesquelles cette thèse de doctorat s’intègre. Une étude sur les différentes antennes existantes ou en projet est présentée. Les puces électroniques MMIC AsGa permettent d’appliquer des lois d’amplitude et de phase pour chaque élément rayonnant d’une antenne réseau. Cette thèse de doctorat porte sur la conception d’un déphaseur, après avoir étudié les technologies et les topologies de celui-ci. Ensuite, la conception d’un amplificateur faible bruit à gain variable est proposée à partir d’un état de l’art. Les résultats de simulation et de mesures de ces deux fonctions sont exposés. / In a world where the information is moving faster and faster, it is important to be able to stay connected continuously. Some new solutions for air transport connectivity are in development thanks to the rise of satellite communications. This thesis work is part of an electronically steerable antenna array project, developed as a solution to achieve In-Flight Connectivity in Ka-band. A state- of-the art review on electronically steerable antenna arrays is also presented. In these arrays, each radiating element needs a specific amplitude and phase to obtain a scanning beam by adding their contribution. This thesis focus on the design of a GaAs MMIC chip inclusion two functions: a phase shifter and a variable-gain low-noise amplifier. The simulation and measurement results are presented for these two functions.