Diese Dissertation bietet eine Darstellung und Analyse der Handlungsfelder serbischer Frauen. Dabei werden die Frauenbildung, das Engagement von Frauen in sozialkaritativen und patriotischen Frauenvereinen, sowie ihre Teilnahme an den zwischen 1876 und 1918 geführten „Befreiungskriegen“ thematisiert. Das Problemfeld von Nation und Geschlecht ist für Serbien fast völlig unbearbeitet. Die vorliegende Untersuchung geht den folgenden Fragen nach: Wie partizipierten Serbinnen am Prozess der Nations- und Nationalstaatsbildung? Welche Weiblichkeits- und Männlichkeitsbilder wurden im Nationsbildungsprozess verwendet? Auf welche Art und Weise partizipierten sie an den Kriegen und unterstützten das Militär? Wie wirkte sich der „Große Krieg“ auf die Geschlechterordnung in Serbien bzw. Jugoslawien aus? Da die für Frauen zentralen politischen, kulturellen und ökonomischen Wandlungsprozesse im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert in der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft der Städte stattgefunden haben, konzentriert sich auch diese Darstellung auf den städtischen Raum und seine Bewohnerinnen. Das bäuerlich-ländliche Frauenleben wird nur kurz angerissen. Die Arbeit nimmt den weiblichen Gruppenbildungsprozess in den Blick, der innerhalb einer schmalen bürgerlichen Schicht stattfand. In den westeuropäischen Ländern entstanden die ersten Frauenvereinigungen am Ende des 18. bzw. zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts. Serbien, dessen Bevölkerung mehrheitlich lese- und schreibunkundig war und von einer ländlichen Subsistenzwirtschaft lebte, folgte mit einer zeitlichen Verzögerung von mehreren Jahrzehnten. Um 1900 war in allen diesen Ländern ein dichtes Netz unterschiedlichster Frauenvereine anzutreffen. Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts stieg auch in Serbien die Zahl der Frauenvereine, die sich in einem Dachverband zusammenschlossen. Dieser Bund trat den internationalen Frauenorganisationen bei.:Inhaltsverzeichnis Vorwort 5 Einleitung 7 Ziel der Arbeit 13 Die Gliederung der Arbeit 16 Forschungsstand 17 Zur Quellenlage 20 Teil A Nation und Geschlecht in Serbien von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ende des Ersten Weltkrieges 24 I. Grundlagen 25 I. 1. Historischer Hintergrund: Von den serbischen Aufständen bis zum Ende des Ersten Weltkrieges (1804–1918) 26 I. 2. Demographischer und sozialer Wandel 42 I. 2. 1. Territorium und Bevölkerungsentwicklung 42 I. 2. 2. Sozialer Wandel 49 II. Die Lage der Frauen in der serbischen Gesellschaft 54 II. 1. Die Bauernfamilie 55 II. 2. Die Rechtsstellung der Frauen nach dem Serbischen Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch (1844) und dem Strafgesetzbuch (1860) 60 III. Die Anfänge des weiblichen Engagements (ca. 1850–1870er Jahre) 67 III. 1. Der Hintergrund: Die Anfänge des Vereinswesens 68 III. 2. Die „Vereinigte Serbische Jugend“ 72 III. 2. 1. Die Frauen in der „Omladina“ 75 III. 2. 2. „Liebe Schwestern! nicht nur die Söhne, sondern im gleichen Maße auch die Töchter, gehören zu unserem Volk“: Die erste serbische Frauenrechtlerin „Schwester Draga“ 85 III. 2. 3. Svetozar Marković und die Frauenfrage 89 III. 3. Die Geschichte des serbischen Frauenvereinswesens in Südungarn 95 IV. Handlungsfelder der serbischen Frauenbewegung 105 IV. 1. Bildung (1846–1914/18) 106 IV. 1. 1. Grundschulen für Mädchen 106 IV. 1. 2. Die höhere Frauenbildung 109 IV. 1. 3. Die Frauenfachschule (Radnička škola) des Belgrader Frauenvereins 118 IV. 1. 4. Der Universitätszugang 122 IV. 1. 5. Weibliche Schul- und Berufserfahrungen 128 IV. 2. Sozialkaritatives Engagement und wirtschaftliche Förderung (1875–1914/18) 139 IV. 2. 1. Der Belgrader Frauenverein 139 IV. 2. 1. 1. Die Heimindustrie 143 IV. 2. 1. 2. Die Förderung der Heimindustrie: Der Pazar 145 IV. 2. 2. Mutterschaft – eine soziale Funktion 152 IV. 3. Frauen in der städtischen Gesellschaft 157 IV. 3. 1. Frauen und urbane Geselligkeit: Der Salon (Poselo) 157 IV. 3. 2. Frauen und Öffentlichkeit: Domaćica 165 IV. 3. 3. „Gott beglücke mein Volk, dem ich sechs Kinder geschenkt habe“: Frauen in der Ehe 172 IV. 4. Frauen und nationale Mobilisierung (1875–1914/18) 188 IV. 4. 1. Patriotische Wohltätigkeit: Der Belgrader Frauenverein 188 IV. 4. 1. 1. Die erste Schirmherrin des Belgrader Frauenvereins: Die Königin Natalija Obrenović 191 IV. 4. 1. 2. Die Kriege von 1877/78 und 1885/86 195 IV. 4. 2. Arbeit an der Nation: Das Engagement des Damenausschusses „Fürstin Ljubica“ in „Altserbien“ und Makedonien 199 IV. 4. 3. An der Seite von Nation und Armee: Der „Kranz der serbischen Schwestern“ 208 IV. 4. 4. Jüdische Frauen und Nation 226 IV. 4. 5. Intellektuelle Frauen und nationale Agitation: Das Beispiel Isidora Sekulić 232 IV. 4. 6. Wird jeder Serbe als Soldat geboren? – Patriotisch-wehrhafte Männlichkeitskonstruktionen 241 IV. 4. 7. Kämpfende Frauen: „Amazonen“ 254 IV. 4. 8. Zwischen national-patriotischen und frauenspezifischen Anliegen: Der Serbisch-nationale Frauenbund 261 V. Zwischenfazit 279 Teil B Nation und Geschlecht im Zwischenkriegsjugoslawien 282 I. Grundlagen 283 I. 1. Entstehung und Entwicklung Jugoslawiens (1918–1941) 284 I. 2. Demographischer und sozialer Wandel 293 I. 2. 1. Territorium und Bevölkerungsentwicklung 293 I. 2. 2. Sozialer Wandel 297 II. Die Lage der Frauen in der jugoslawischen Gesellschaft 304 II. 1. Die Bauernfamilie 305 II. 2. Die Rechtsstellung der Frauen 313 III. Die jugoslawische Frauenbewegung 322 III. 1. Akademische Bildung, Berufsleben, Berufsverbände 323 III. 2. Politische Partizipationsforderungen: Kampf um das Wahlrecht 335 III. 3. Zwischen traditionellem Patriotismus und Jugoslawismus, zwischen Feminismus und Sozialismus 354 III. 3. 1. Nationaler Unitarismus 355 III. 3. 2. Die Emanzipation der patriarchalen Gesellschaft 366 IV. Zwischenfazit 384 Zusammenfassung 390 Abkürzungsverzeichnis 393 Quellen und Literatur 394 Quellen 394 Literatur 399 Verzeichnis der Karten, Tabellen und Graphiken 410 Verzeichnis der Abbildungen 412

This thesis deals with the way in which the human body was discussed from different points of view in a particular type of medical literature (so called "Family Doctor Books) in the second half of the 19th and early 20th century. The work is based on a premise that body is not only neutral biological foundation made in nature but perception of body and physicality is influenced by society. That's why certain social changes may reflect changes in perception of human body, especially its conceptualization as a female and male body. Since just around sixties of the 19th century both emancipatory activities of Czech women, their rights extension and generally transformation of gender relations in society started to develop. This work examines whether these social changes reflected in the manner in which it was human, and thus male and female, body reported on in a particular medical literature. This work also explores what such conceptions of human body say about gender changes in society.

The vakstugor were informal and armed reunions organised by the parents of Stockholm during thewitch craze that reached the city around the year 1674. They were designed to defend the children from the witches’ assaults, and included both men and women, who could carry weapons. By comparing both the ordinary violence found in ordinary court records and the violence found in the Witchcraft Commission records, this study intends to understand the phenomenon of the vakstugor, in the light of the relationship between violence and gender. The study first reassessed women’s ordinary spectrum of violence, to understand what violence looked like during the period spanning from 1667 to 1686. It then found that the experience of the vakstugor exhibits a significant widening of this spectrum. Followingly, the thesis found that, despite the fact that women were usually excluded from collective violent organisations, such as armies, militias and the like, their participation in the vakstugor was not considered illegitimate by the authorities because of theirgender. Finally, an important underlying aim of this thesis is to draw the attention on the yet unstudied phenomenon of the vakstugor, which existed not only in Stockholm, but also in northern Sweden and Norway.

The Diploma thesis deals with the phenomenon of travelling of women in Bohemia in the second half of the nineteenth century. It concentrates on the middle class women, who at this time started to travel. The practical part of the thesis sets a typology of journeys and final destinations. The typology is based on a wide range of primary sources, among others on women diaries, memoirs, articles concerning travelling in fashion magazines and in magazine Ženské listy as well as on relevant documents of the literary society Svatobor archive. The thesis focuses particularly on travelling resulting from the women new occupational needs reflecting thus a growing women emancipation movement in Bohemia and changes in social status of women in Bohemia in given period. The thesis also analyses the course of everyday life of women's travelling and provides an overview of possible sources of information and literature for women who at that time intended to travel.

The purpose of this dissertation is to conduct a study of the history of the girls’ magazine Cordelia (1881–1942), founded in Florence by Angelo De Gubernatis. The analysis mainly focuses on the years 1881–1917; however, the latter period is also briefly treated. The theoretical framework consists of sociology of literature and gender history; the dissertation belongs to the field of history of publishing, which is integrated with a gender historical perspective. The methodological challenges faced when dealing with periodicals as research objects are also considered. In order to achieve bibliographic control and examine Cordelia’s contents and contributors, all issues of the magazine’s first 36 years were indexed. The study examines the commercial strategies of the magazine’s publishers, as well as the contributions of the chief editors and writers involved in the making of the magazine. Attention is drawn to the personal relationships between the individuals in these groups. As is shown, the magazine was not very successful in its first three years of publication, during the editorship of De Gubernatis. The two editors who followed, Ida Baccini and Jolanda (pseudonym for Maria Maiocchi Plattis), did succeed, however, in creating a familiar and attractive product for the young female public and to involve them in their magazine. Quantitative surveys of the contributors and contents have shown, for instance, that Baccini and Jolanda relied on regular contributions from relatively few writers and also published serial fiction to arouse the readers’ interest. Their comprehension of the potential of the periodical and the importance of their gender in addressing their readers, together with the capacity of long-time publisher Cappelli to develop commercial strategies to boost sales, seem to have been the reason for the longevity and success of Cordelia.

This study examines how Swedish upper secondary school youth constructed femininity and masculinity in the period 1880–1930. The overall intention of the dissertation is to analyse the gender ideals that are found in texts written by girls and boys in a bourgeois school environment during a period characterised by transformative social changes in society. The source material consists of school magazines and student essays authored by youth in upper secondary boys’ schools, secondary girls’ schools, and co-educational schools.  The study analyses gender stereotypes from five different areas: youth, love life, body, parenting and working life. Boys are prone to use gender stereotypes that emphasise the subordination of women vis-a-vis men. The boys’ usage of stereotypes is thus prominent and is widely used in order to reinforce male dominance. They did not problematise or question their role in the society to any great extent. Girls were, to a significantly greater extent than the boys, keen to problematise women’s traditional role in society. This challenges the images of women as complicit in their own subordination. It seems that the girls have not only been aware of their subordination, but also have been more inclined to strive for their emancipation. The girls’ gender stereotypes are diverse and tolerant, and display progressiveness towards the emancipation movement. The young people’s ideal of moderation emerges as a recurring theme. Both the working class and the upper class are used as deterring examples of excess. The changes in society during this period seems to have had little influence on the ideal gender stereotypes, but in terms of emancipation, appears have made the boys more reactionary than the girls. The daughters of the bourgeois pressed forward; the sons of the bourgeois glanced backward.

The Canadian military and veterans have a long history of dealing with psychological trauma caused by war and peacekeeping. Over the past century views about trauma among physicians, military leaders, society, and veterans’ themselves have been shaped by medical theories, predominant views about the ideal soldier and man, and the nation’s role in international affairs. Since the First World War, major conflicts and peacekeeping operations have been responsible for distinct shifts in how trauma is conceptualized, named, and experienced by Canadian soldiers and the public. Canadian historians have examined this subject by looking at particular wars, most notably the First World War, but no attempt has been made to provide a monograph-length study of military trauma over the past century. This thesis utilizes several lenses – medical, social, and cultural – to explore how conceptions of trauma changed from 1914 to 2014, how such changes affected veterans in their civilian life, and the interactions between medical and popular knowledge, military culture, and veterans’ lived experiences. With a particular emphasis on the latter, it uses oral interviews with veterans of the post-Cold War, government reports, medical literature, and national newspapers to track shifts in consciousness about trauma and its social and medical treatment. It argues that despite numerous changes in medical thought and popular understandings of trauma, stigmas about psychological illness persisted, and that masculine ideals inherent in 1914 were still present, albeit in an altered form, one-hundred years later. It also argues that the Canadian veteran’s experience demonstrates that from 1914 to 2014, trauma consistently oscillated between being a medical entity and a metaphorical representation of war, peacekeeping, veterans’ socio-economic struggles, and national identity. This thesis takes advantage of a historically unique openness in the Canadian military since the year 2000 to contribute to a growing literature about trauma in Canadian military history and society.

Cette étude a permis d’analyser un aspect de la condition féminine en Gaule, en partant du présupposé qu'il y ait eu des réalités différentes, unifiées par l’appartenance à une «couche sociale» complexe, divisée à l'intérieur, mais réglé par des lois universellement admises. Non seulement les femmes, mais les hommes également ont cherchés une intégration avec la culture romaine, condition nécessaire pour maintenir leurs privilèges et pour en acquérir de nouveaux. Cette recherche a identifié, dans la mesure du possible, le rôle joué par les femmes dans chaque couche sociale, en se référant plus particulièrement à leur perception du monde romain. Les femmes qui ont habité dans la Gaule, étaient étrangers aux mores romains, et ont été considérées par les romains comme l'antithèse du modèle romain de la pia et pudica matrona. Dans les représentations de elles mêmes, les femmes barbares se représentaient comme des romaines, en suivant les stéréotypes qui on retrouve dans tout l’Empire. Nous avons donc vérifier de quelle manière les provinciales se sont adaptées au modèle romain de la lanifica, c’est à dire la summa des stéréotypes qui voyait la femme comme un annexe du mari, et comme, au contraire, elles en ont refusé quelques aspects, mais aussi de quelle manière un tel modèle culturel a pu s'introduire dans une province, par quelles voies, pour quelles raisons historiques et culturelles, et comme il ait été accepté ou refusé par quelques régions de la Gaule. Notre tentative a donc été celui de tracer le rôle joué par les femmes dans une région qui faisait partie de l'Empire, et que elle en était pour ceci influencée, mais que elle a présenté également des particularités régionales non négligeables. / This research has tried to analyse an aspect of the female condition in Gauls, based on the assumption that there were different realities, unified anyway by a complex class system that was itself divided and settled by laws universally accepted. Not only the women but also the men looked for integration with the Roman culture, the necessary condition for the provincials to maintain their privileges and to acquire new ones. This study identified the role played by the women in every sector of the society, with a particular attention to their perception of the Roman world they were living in. These women were obviously unfamiliar to the Roman mores and were considered by the Roman themselves as the antithesis of the model of pia et pudica matrona. In their own representations, the barbaric women appeared as Romains, following the stereotypes common in all the Empire. This research has also tried to verify how the provincials adapted themselves to the Roman model of the lanifica, the summa of the stereotypes, or, on the contrary, they refused some aspects of it; but also analysed how such a cultural model got into a province, the ways used to diffuse it, the historical and cultural reasons, and how it was accepted or refused by some regions of the Gauls.This work is an attempt to draw the role played by the women in a province that was a part of the Roman Republic and Empire, and was influenced by it, but also had significant regional peculiarities.

This thesis examines perceptions of lower-class female prostitutes and prostitution in eighteenth-century London. It reveals that throughout the Hanoverian period perceptions of prostitution were shaped by sensibilities about morality, the social order, and sin. To explore attitudes towards prostitution in eighteenth-century London, this dissertation evaluates how governing elites, ecclesiastical authorities, contributors to the newspaper press, and popular commentators discussed prostitution. This dissertation engages with two main assumptions about prostitution in eighteenth-century London. First, it demonstrates that there is more continuity in perceptions of prostitution than historians have recognized; attitudes towards prostitutes did not shift from hostility to sympathy in a straight-forward manner. Second, this dissertation reveals that prostitution was regarded by Augustan and Hanoverian Londoners as a significant social problem because it embodied and encapsulated the seven deadly sins – lust, avarice, pride, envy, gluttony, sloth, and wrath. This thesis suggests that prostitutes’ excessive lust and avarice were not seen as disparate issues, but were often discussed together. Paradoxically, discussants recognized that financial considerations drove some women into prostitution, but these women were regarded as abnormally greedy and corrupt because they resorted to deceptive tactics. Pride and envy were associated with prostitution because Hanoverians believed some prostitutes bought extravagant clothes and cosmetics to conceal their lowly status and enhance their appearance to emulate elites. Hanoverians regarded these prostitutes with trepidation because they threatened to undermine their hierarchically ordered society. Prostitutes’ proclivities towards drunkenness and idleness were associated with gluttony and sloth. Commentators feared that drunken and idle prostitutes would encourage men to engage in these dissolute activities, leading to greater disorder. Wrath was closely associated with prostitution because of its association with violence. Although prostitutes were both the victims and perpetrators of assault, incidents in which prostitutes were assailants were reported more frequently, suggesting that Britons regarded prostitutes as disorderly, sinful criminals. Each chapter also brings attention to concerns regarding prostitutes’ lack of self-control and their apparent ability to cause men to lose self-control; how double standards of morality influenced discussions of prostitution; the consequences of prostitutes’ criminality and ability to deceive Londoners; and the various institutions, organizations, and suggestions proposed and established to reform prostitutes and eradicate sin from society.

This thesis deals with the issue of feminism and gender equality in society and, more specifically in education. Gender equality (as well as other types of equality) is an important part of a democratic society. The way feminism and gender equality are approached and discussed in school reflects and at the same time shapes how it is perceived in society. The goal of this thesis is to present the issue of gender equality and feminism, and analyse the situation specific to these topics in Czech schools. The aim of the thesis is to find out teachers' attitude towards these topics and the way they work with them in their lessons. The theoretical part of this thesis offers basic terms and their interpretations, focuses on the history of feminism its origin and progress in the world and in Bohemia (Czechoslovakia respectively). It maps the development of feminism and gender equality in the Czech Republic since 1989 until the present day and shows the attitude of the Czech society towards these issues. It presents gender equality and feminism in context of education. This part of the thesis was conducted with the use of literature- based research methodology. The empirical part of this thesis analyses the interviews conducted with working teachers of subject called "Basics of Social Sciences" both...