京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地球環境学) / 甲第24952号 / 地環博第243号 / 新制||地環||48(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院地球環境学舎地球環境学専攻 / (主査)教授 勝見 武, 准教授 高井 敦史, 教授 越後 信哉 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Global Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DFAM

Reinforced soil constructions have a long history, and various types of the soil reinforcement havebeen in use since the medieval period. Geosynthetic reinforced soil walls (GRS-walls) while beingcommon throughout the world, in not included in the current Eurocode for geotechnical design, SSEN1997-1. The Swedish transportation authority design guidelines (TK Geo 13 and TR Geo 13)provides requirements regarding the utilization of the bearing capacity of the reinforcedgeosynthetic layer and suggestions for the calculation model, but the design is free to choose asuitable design model. Since geosynthetics are very flexible, the load distribution between thegeosynthetic layers in the GRS-wall will be dependent on the stress-strain response of the soil andthe geosynthetic layers. This thesis evaluates the importance of the design model on the ultimatelimit state (ULS) as well as the serviceability limit state (SLS) on a typical GRS wall. The resultsshows that a full numerical model including the stress-strain development gives less utilization ofthe geosynthetic layers at a comparable surcharge load compared to a limit equilibrium model(LEM) suggested by TR Geo. Furthermore, the redistribution of the load between the geosyntheticlayers result in a significantly larger maximum load before a collapse state compared to the LEMcalculation. In such structures the serviceability conditions will control the design. Theconsequences for practical design and the limitation to various design models are elaborated andrecommendations are given.

[pt] A demanda por melhores técnicas de dimensionamento incentivou o desenvolvimento de estudos capazes de fornecer uma maior compreensão do comportamento dos geossintéticos quando inseridos na massa de solo. A interação solo-geossintético é complexa, sendo função das propriedades dos materiais utilizados, solo e geossintético, e expressa por meio dos parâmetros de adesão e ângulo de atrito de interface. O estudo da interação solo- geossintético pode ser realizado empregando-se ensaios de campo ou laboratório. Os ensaios de campo são considerados os mais representativos, pois simulam mais corretamente as condições e as solicitações in situ. Entretanto, são ensaios de custos elevados e de difícil execução. Apesar de alguns inconvenientes tais como o tamanho reduzido de amostra, os ensaios de laboratório têm custos mais acessíveis e são executados com maior facilidade. Os ensaios normalmente utilizados são os de arrancamento, cisalhamento (convencional, inclinado e com reforço inclinado) e rampa. Este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de um novo equipamento capaz de executar três tipos de ensaios de ensaio de cisalhamento (convencional, inclinado e rampa), combinando-se diferentes caixas de ensaio e acessórios. Além do projeto e construção, o trabalho também apresenta os resultados de uma série ensaios de cisalhamento empregando-se um solo (areia) e três geossintéticos (uma geogrelha e duas geomembranas). Estes resultados permitiram a avaliação da acurácia do equipamento, estudo das condições de contorno e análise comparativa dos parâmetros de interface obtidos através dos três tipos de ensaio. / [en] The demand for better techniques of sizing motivated the development of studies capable to supply a larger understanding of the behavior of the geosynthetics when inserted in the soil mass. The interaction soil- geosynthetics it is complex, being function of the properties of the used materials, soil and geossintético, and expresses through the adhesion and angle of interface attrition. The study of the interaction soil- geosynthetics it can be accomplished through field test or laboratory. The field test are considered the most representative, because they simulate the conditions and the solicitations in situ more correctly. However, they are tests of high costs and of difficult execution. In spite of some such inconveniences as the sample size, the laboratory test have more accessible costs and they are executed with larger easiness. The tests usually used they are the one of pullout and direct shear (conventional, with tilted reinforcement, tilted and ramp). This work presents the development of a new equipment capable to execute three types of direct shear test (conventional, tilted and ramp), combining different test boxes and accessories. Besides the project and construction the work also presents the results of a series direct shear test being used une soil types (sand) and tree geosynthetics (one geogrids and two geomembranes), executed in the developed equipment. These results allowed the evaluation of the performance of the equipment, study of the contour conditions and comparative analysis of the interface parameters obtained through the three test types.

The use of geosynthetics as reinforcement for the base layer of flexible pavement systems has grown steadily over the past thirty years. In spite of the evidence that geosynthetic reinforcements can lead to improved pavement performance, the specific conditions or mechanisms that enable and govern the reinforcement are unclear, largely remaining unidentified and unmeasured. The appropriate selection of design parameters for geosynthetics is complicated by the difficulty in associating their relevant properties to the improved pavement performance. In addition, pavement structures deteriorate under the combined effects of traffic loading and environmental conditions, such as moisture changes. However, these factors have not been studied together in the evaluation of the overall performance of pavement systems. Consequently, this research focused on the assessment of the effect of geosynthetics on the pavement structural section's ability to support traffic loads and to resist environmental changes. Accordingly, the primary objectives of this research were: (i) to determine the governing mechanisms and relevant properties of geosynthetics that contribute to the enhanced performance of pavement systems; (ii) to develop appropriate analytical, laboratory and field methods that are capable of quantifying the above properties for geosynthetics; and (iii) to enable the prediction of pavement performance depending on the various types of geosynthetics used. To fulfill these three objectives, an evaluative, laboratory and field study was performed. The improved performance of pavements due to addition of geosynthetics was attributed to the ability of geosynthetics to laterally restrain the base course material, thereby providing a confinement effect to the pavement. A parameter to quantify the soil-geosynthetic interaction at low displacement magnitudes based on the solution of an analytical model for geosynthetics confined in pullout box was proposed. The pullout tests were then conducted on various geosynthetics to obtain the proposed parameter for various geosynthetics. The quantitative magnitude of the parameter value from the laboratory tests was compared with the qualitative performance observed in the field test sections. Overall, a good agreement was obtained between the laboratory and field results, thereby providing confidence in the ability of the proposed analytical model to predict the governing mechanism for geosynthetic reinforced pavements. / text

The main weakness of soil is its inability to resist tensile stresses. Civil engineers have been trying to address this problem for decades. To increase the tensile and shear strengths of soil, different methods of reinforcing such as using geosynthetics have been used in different types of earth structures such as retaining walls, earth dams, slopes, etc. Due to the excellent corrosion resistance of polymers, the use of geosynthetics has increased dramatically in recent years. However, there are some significant problems associated with geosynthetics, such as creep and low modulus of elasticity. In this research, a new Geo-Composite which is made of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) is used to overcome some of the short comings of the existing geosynthetics. The new Geo-Composite has all the benefits of the geotextiles plus higher strength, higher modulus and no creep. In first part of the investigation, over eighty experiments were carried out using direct shear test. The interface properties of the Geo-Composite (CFRP) and fine sand were investigated. Tests showed that the interface shear behavior between Geo-Composite and fine sand depended on the normal forces during the curing of epoxy and curing age of epoxy. The two methods used to prepare the specimen are pre-casting and casting in place, and the results of these two methods are compared. In the second part of the investigation, the pull-out test device was designed and assembled using a triaxial loading device and a direct shear device. In the pull-out test, the normal force applied by the triaxial loading and pull out force is applied by a direct shear device. CFRP samples were prepared in the lab, and pre-cast and cast-in-place samples were tested using fine sand. The pull-out force and corresponding displacements of each of the materials were recorded and compared. In the third part of the investigation, the behavior of the interface between coarse sand and modified CFRP has been studied in larger scale using a device known as Cyclic Multi Degree of Freedom (CYMDOF) device. A constitutive Model, Hierachical Single Surface (HISS) model, is used to characterize the behavior of the interfaces. The constitutive model is verified by predicting the laboratory behavior of interface. In the forth part of the investigation, using the laboratory test data results, a finite element procedure with the hardening model is used to simulate field behavior of a CFRP reinforced earth retaining wall, and compare the results with a geotextile reinforced earth retaining wall. This section shows the advantages and disadvantages of using CFRP in MSE walls.

[pt] Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar a resposta sísmica do talude de um aterro (10,40 m de altura e 76 graus de inclinação), reforçado com geossintáticos (09 camadas de reforço horizontal com 10 m de comprimento) localizada em zona de atividade sí­smica, no Peru. Os aspectos investigados compreendem o estudo da estabilidade de taludes sob condição estatística, a resposta dinâmica da estrutura, a influência das condições de contorno, do tipo de amortecimento do solo e do ângulo de atrito do solo que forma o aterro aterro. As análises dinâmicas foram realizadas utilizando o programa computacional FLAC (ITASCA, 2005), com representação dos reforços geossintáticos como elementos de cabo. O comportamento mecânico do material de rejeito foi simulado através do modelo elastoplástico de Mohr-Coulomb, considerando tanto o amortecimento de Rayleigh (dependente da frequência), quanto o amortecimento histerático (dependente da deformação cisalhante do solo), com o objetivo de verificar os efeitos na resposta dinâmica do aterro e na distribuição das cargas máximas nos reforços. Um melhor entendimento de comportamento de taludes reforçados, principalmente sob ação de carregamentos sísmicos, é essencial para um adequado projeto de engenharia, tanto em termos técnicos quanto econômicos, em diversos países andinos da América do Sul. / [en] The main objective of this research is to investigate the seismic response of a soil slope reinforced with geosynthetics, located in an active seismic region of Peru. The 10.40m high slope was reinforced with 9 horizontal layers of geosynthetics 10m long. The aspects studied in this work are related to the slope static stability, the dynamic response of the embankment under seismic excitation, the effects of the boundary conditions and the different types of mechanical damping, the influence of the friction angle of the soil that forms the embankment. The seismic analysis was carried out with the computational program FLAC, where the reinforcement layers were represented by means of cable elements. The soil mechanical behavior was simulated through the Mohr- Coulomb elastoplastic constitutive model, considering both the frequencydependent Rayleigh damping and the hysteretic damping (dependent on the soil shear deformation) with the objective to understand the influence of all these variables on the dynamic response of the structure and on the distribution of traction forces along the reinforcements. A good knowledge about the mechanical behavior of soil reinforced structures is essential for an efficient engineering design, under the technical and economical points of view, mainly in the Andean countries of South America.

Ce travail de thèse repose principalement sur l’étude de l’impact des facteurs environnementaux (température, humidité, pH) sur le vieillissement des fils de HT-PVAl destinés à la conception des bandes géosynthétiques. Les objectifs étaient d’identifier les produits, les mécanismes et les cinétiques de dégradation, et de déterminer l’impact du vieillissement sur la structure chimique, les propriétés physiques et mécaniques des fils. Il s’agissait aussi de proposer une méthodologie générale d’étude de la durabilité des produits géosynthétiques à base de fils de HT-PVAl. Ces derniers sont sujets à deux types de vieillissement : un vieillissement physique par absorption de l’humidité existante dans les sols, et un vieillissement chimique par exposition aux conditions physico-chimiques des sols. Pour mieux comprendre l’impact de chaque facteur (température, humidité, pH), des essais de vieillissement accélérés ont été réalisés dans trois distincts environnements : le vieillissement thermique dans l’air entre 70 et 120°C, le vieillissement humide entre 0 et 100 % d’humidité relative et entre 22 et 70°C, et le vieillissement chimique dans des solutions aqueuses acide (acide sulfurique, pH = 2,4) et alcaline (hydroxyde de sodium, pH = 12) entre 50 et 70°C. Les échantillons ont été caractérisés à différentes échelles structurales : moléculaire, macromoléculaire, morphologique et macroscopique. Cette approche multi-technique et multi-échelle a permis de déterminer les principaux paramètres régissant la cinétique de dégradation des fils de HT-PVAl dans des conditions de vieillissement proches de celles de l’application. De plus, elle a permis de mettre en évidence des traceurs de dégradation qui pourront être ensuite utilisés pour évaluer l’état de dégradation des produits de renforcement dans le temps. / This PhD thesis is mainly based on the study of the impact of environmental factors (temperature, humidity, pH) on the aging of HT-PVAl yarns for the design of geosynthetic strips. The objectives were to identify the degradation products, mechanisms and kinetics, and to determine the impact of aging on the chemical structure, the physical and mechanical properties of the yarns. This study was also aimed at proposing a general methodology for studying the durability of geosynthetic products based on HT-PVAl yarns. These latter are subject to two types of aging: physical aging by absorbing moisture existing in soils, and chemical aging by exposure to the physicochemical conditions of soil. In order to better understand the impact of each factor (temperature, humidity, pH), accelerated aging tests were done in three different environments: thermal aging in air between 70 and 120°C, humid aging between 0 and 100% relative humidity and between 22 and 70°C, and chemical aging in acidic (sulfuric acid, pH = 2.4) and alkaline (sodium hydroxide, pH = 12) aqueous solutions between 50 and 70°C. The samples were characterized at different structural scales: molecular, macromolecular, morphological and macroscopic scales. This multi-technical and multi-scale approach allowed determining the main parameters governing the degradation kinetics of HT-PVAl yarns in aging conditions close to application conditions. In addition, it allowed evidencing degradation tracers that will be then help us to evaluate the degradation state of reinforcement products against time of exposure.

El Tramo I del proyecto “Mejoramiento de la carretera Oyón – Ambo” comprende 48, 9 km de longitud y beneficia a 93,878 usuarios entre los departamentos de Lima y Huánuco. El proyecto consiste en una vía con tramos de pavimento flexible y pavimento rígido. A lo largo del diseño se han identificado zonas críticas por las que debe atravesar la vía de las cuales los bofedales son los más complejos. Como medida de solución en el expediente técnico se ha propuesto el uso de geomallas biaxiales y geotextiles además de haber diseñado el pavimento rígido bajo la metodología AASHTO 93. La presente investigación está orientada en tres etapas. En la primera, se estabilizará con cal el tipo de suelo más representativo en las zonas críticas de bofedales. En la segunda, se diseñará el paquete estructural de la vía bajo la metodología de diseño de pavimento rígido AASHTO 93 y MPEDG. Finalmente, en la tercera etapa se analizará la influencia de la estabilización planteada en el diseño de pavimento rígido. Los resultados finales de esta investigación son dos. Por un lado, el porcentaje óptimo de dosificación de cal es de 10% y el CBR del suelo natural se ha incrementado en 7 veces el valor inicial. Por otro lado, se presentan dos diseños de pavimentos rígidos con reducciones de 2 cm. y 7 cm. de losa de pavimento en comparación del diseño presentado en el expediente técnico. / Section I of the project "Improvement of the Oyón - Ambo highway" comprises 48, 9 km in length and benefits to 93,878 users between the departments of Lima and Huánuco. The project consists of a road with flexible pavements and rigid pavements. Throughout the design, areas, things, things, other complexes have been identified. As a solution in the technical file has been used the use of biaxial geogrids and geotextiles, in addition to having been designed the rigid pavement under the methodology AASHTO 93. The present investigation is oriented in three stages. In the first, it will stabilize with the most representative type of soil in the critical areas of bofedales. In the second, the structural package of the road will be designed under the rigid pavement AASHTO 93 and MPEDG design methodology. Finally, in the third stage the influence of the stabilization proposed in the design of rigid pavement will be analyzed. The final results of this investigation are two. On the one hand, the optimum percentage of dosage of times is 10% and the CBR of natural soil has increased 7 times the initial value. On the other hand, there are two designs of rigid pavements with reductions of 2 cm. and 7 cm. of pavement slab in the comparison of the design presented in the technical file. / Tesis

Este trabalho apresenta a construção e instrumentação de uma estrutura de contenção reforçada com geotêxtil, com 4,0 m de altura, construída na cidade de Nova Odessa-SP. A instrumentação consistiu em medir os deslocamentos horizontais e verticais com barras de aço e placas magnéticas, respectivamente. Além disso, foram realizadas simulações numéricas para comparar os resultados medidos e simulados do protótipo e avaliar o comportamento da estrutura para alguns tipos de solo, rigidez da inclusão e arranjos das inclusões. Pode-se concluir que os resultados medidos e simulados estão concordantes. Através das análises paramétricas concluiu-se que aumentando-se a rigidez do solo reduz-se os deslocamentos horizontais da estrutura. Com o aumento na rigidez da inclusão obtém-se menores deslocamentos, no entanto, em solos muito rígidos esta redução é pouco significativa. As estruturas com maior número de reforços reduzem as tensões em cada inclusão e diminuem os deslocamentos horizontais da estrutura. As forças de tração máximas, mobilizadas nas inclusões, são maiores para solos menos rígidos. Alguns resultados de obras instrumentadas, encontrados na literatura, são apresentados e comparados com os medidos e simulados. Destas comparações concluiu-se que o tipo de solo é o fator que mais influencia no desempenho de estruturas de contenção reforçadas com geossintéticos / This work presents the construction and instrumentation of a geotextile reinforced retaining structure, with 4,0 m height, built in the city of Nova Odessa-SP. The instrumentation consisted of measuring the horizontal and vertical displacements with steel bars and magnetic plates, respectively. Numeric simulations were accomplished to compare the measured and simulated results of the prototype and to evaluate the behavior of the structure for some soil types, reinforcement rigidity and different reinforcement layout. It was concluded that the measured and simulated results are in good agreement. The parametric analyses showed that the amount of horizontal displacements of the structure are reduced when the rigidity of the soil increases. Although smaller displacements are obtained when the rigidity of the inclusion is increased, in very rigid soils this reduction is not very significant. Structures with larger number of reinforcements reduce the stresses in each inclusion, decreasing the horizontal displacements of the structure. The maximum tensile forces mobilized in the inclusions, are larger for less rigid soils. Some case record results documented in the literature are presented and compared with the measured and simulated results obtained in this work. These comparisons allowed to conclude that the soil type is the most relevant factor in the performance of reinforced retaining structure with geosynthetics

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo sobre o comportamento ao longo do tempo de estruturas em solos finos reforçados com geossintéticos. O programa de atividades desenvolvido para este fim compreendeu três etapas: leituras de deformações de uma estrutura real de solo reforçado com geossintéticos, ensaios de laboratório de fluência confinada e isolada e modelagens computacionais da obra de referência. A estrutura real foi monitorada em duas seções distintas, sendo uma delas construída em geotêxteis não tecidos e a outra em geotêxteis tecidos. As leituras de deformação foram realizadas por um período de quatro anos. As condições da obra real foram utilizadas como referência para o planejamento dos ensaios de fluência em isolamento e confinamento. Os ensaios confinados foram conduzidos inicialmente no equipamento de fluência confinada desenvolvido por Costa (2004), no qual o carregamento é imposto de forma indireta ao reforço. Os ensaios foram realizados empregando o mesmo solo de aterro da obra real, com diferentes níveis de carregamento vertical (140, 200, 300 e 400 kPa) e com diferentes umidades de compactação (8%, 11,7% e 16%). Os ensaios com carregamento de 140 kPa foram repetidos no equipamento de fluência confinada-acelerada desenvolvido por França (2011), permitindo uma comparação teórica e prática entre os dois equipamento utilizados. Ensaios adicionais foram realizados para avaliar o comportamento ao longo do tempo de geossintéticos confinados submetidos a um processo de inundação do solo. E para finalizar a campanha de ensaios foram realizados testes para a verificação do incremento de cargas nos reforços devido aos efeitos da compactação do maciço. As modelagens computacionais foram realizadas empregando o software Plaxis 2D. A partir dos modelos numéricos foi possível verificar os mecanismos desenvolvidos ao longo do tempo de estruturas de solos reforçados com geossintéticos. A modelagem numérica permitiu extrapolar o comportamento da estrutura para outro tipo de reforço (geogrelha) e para tempos bem mais elevados do que os tempos reais de leitura. As previsões de comportamento foram realizadas para tempos de até 100 anos. Os resultados da campanha de ensaios mostraram que os reforços confinados em solo estão sujeitos aos fenômenos da fluência e da relaxação ao longo do tempo. Os resultados mostraram que as taxas de fluência e de relaxação foram mais elevadas para os maiores carregamentos verticais. Os ensaios adicionais mostraram que os reforços sofreram um incremento significativo de carga devido aos efeitos da compactação e que a rigidez confinada dos reforços praticamente não se alterou devido aos efeitos da inundação. A previsão do comportamento do muro de referência utilizando o MEF mostrou que a estrutura deve apresentar baixos níveis de deformação para períodos de até 100 anos. A análise conjunta de todos os resultados obtidos ao longo do trabalho permitiu o desenvolvimento de um modelo analítico que permite a previsão do comportamento de muros reforçados com geossintéticos a partir de resultados de ensaios de fluência em isolamento. A aplicação do modelo proposto para o caso do muro real mostrou uma boa coerência entre os resultados previstos e os resultados medidos em campo. / This dissertation presents a study on time-dependent behavior of geosynthetic reinforced soil walls with fine soil. The testing program comprised of three distinct steps: field assessment of an instrumented geotextile reinforced soil wall, in-air and in-soil laboratory creep tests, and numerical analysis of the instrumented wall. Reinforcement strains were monitored in two different cross-sections: one built with nonwoven geotextile and the other built with woven geotextile. The strains were monitored during four years of service. The field conditions were used as the basis for planning in-air and in-soil creep tests. The in-soil creep tests were initially conducted using the confined-creep test apparatus developed by Costa (2004), which simulates the typical load transfer mechanism in reinforced soil structures. The in-soil tests were performed using the same soil used in the instrumented wall. These tests were carried out at different levels of vertical load (140, 200, 300 and 400 kPa) at the optimum water content (11.7%) and at different compaction water content of the soil (8%, 11.7% and 16%) at 140 kPa. The tests with 140 kPa of vertical load were replicated using the confined-accelerated creep test apparatus developed by França (2011). These tests allowed a theoretical and practical comparison between the two different in-soil creep testing apparatuses utilized in the testing program. Additional in-soil creep tests were conducted to evaluate the behavior of confined geosynthetics with time submitted to flooding of the top soil layer above the reinforcement. Compaction tests were also performed to check the increase of reinforcement loads due to soil compaction. Numerical modelling was carried out with the Finite Element Method (FEM) using Plaxis 2D. The numerical models allowed evaluation of the geotechnical mechanisms developed with time on geosynthetic reinforced soil wall structures. These models were also used to predict timedependent strains for longer periods (until 100 years) and for different types of reinforcements. The results of the testing program showed that the reinforcements confined in soil presented creep and stress relaxation behavior with time. The results also showed that the creep and relaxation rates were higher for larger vertical loads. It was observed that the confined stiffness of the reinforcement was virtually the same regardless the occurrence of flooding in the top soil layer. Additionally, the compaction tests showed that the larger the difference of the soil compaction water content from the optimum, the larger the loads in the reinforcement. Behavior prediction of the monitored, full-scale wall using FEM showed that the structure should have low strain levels for periods up to 100 years. The laboratory test results and the mechanisms learned from the FEM analysis allowed the development of an analytical model for predicting geosynthetic-reinforced soil wall behavior from results of in-air creep tests. The strain results of the analytical model applied to the monitored full-scale wall showed that the predicted strains are in good agreement with the field strains.