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<p>Urban expansion and agricultural growth are placing significant stresses on existing groundwater reserves hosted within Quaternary sediments in southern Ontario. Preserving the quality and quantity of groundwater resources requires a detailed knowledge of the three-dimensional distribution of subsurface geologic units. In this study, integrated analysis of surficial sediment exposures, geophysical and remotely-sensed data, and fully-cored boreholes in the Alliston region of southern Ontario has allowed for the identification of landform-sediment associations, or landsystems, which can be used to predict the nature of subsurface sediment types and to assist with the reconstruction of paleoenvironmental change in the region. The landsystems identified in the Alliston region can also be used as a foundation for the development of a stratigraphic framework for hydrogeological investigations.</p> <p>Nine landsystems were identified in the study area and include: i) bedrock escarpment, ii) gravel bench, iii) V-shaped valleys and fills, iv) streamlined uplands, v) low-relief uplands, vi) upland plains and scarps, vii) erosional amphitheatres, viii) hummocky terrain, and ix) lowland plains. These landsystems record the changing distribution of glacial, ice-marginal, glaciofluvial, glaciolacustrine, and post-glacial depositional systems that affected the region during the late Quaternary. The landsystems analysis approach provides a useful framework for discerning the spatiotemporal relationship of a complex suite of depositional systems. Analysis of the distribution and internal composition of landsystems in the study area has allowed the development of a preliminary risk assessment map for aquifer vulnerability in the region.</p> <p>Detailed analysis of 56 outcrop exposures in cutbanks along the Nottawasaga River within the former Lake Algonquin plain has led to the identification of six lithofacies associations (FA 1–6) that present a detailed record of environmental change during the deglacial period. The stratigraphy is floored by the Late Wisconsin Newmarket Till (FA 1) which is locally overlain by ice-proximal debris flows (FA 2). These glacial sediments are overlain by glaciolacustrine silt rhythmites (FA 3) that pass upwards into deltaic sand (FA 4) and channelized fluviodeltaic sand and gravel (FA 5). Lying above the fluvial deposits and capping the succession are widespread sand and silt rhythmites (FA 6), which coarsen up-section. These six facies associations provide a record of changing environmental conditions that existed during deglaciation of the region and give valuable insights into the nature of the evolution of glacial lakes Schomberg, Algonquin, and Nipissing. The deglacial environmental changes described from southern Simcoe County may be valuable analogues for the interpretation of regional-scale events that occurred in extensive lake basins in other formerly glaciated regions.</p> <p>Qualitative observations of groundwater discharge from sediment facies at outcrop faces along the Nottawasaga River have yielded important data on the internal heterogeneity of subsurface units. These data can be used to identify possible preferential groundwater flow pathways through both aquifer and aquitard units in the region. Understanding the geometry and interconnectedness of these subsurface sediments is essential for planning future water supply for growing urban communities and agricultural irrigation needs in the region and for the prediction of contaminant migration pathways.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

Eight dissolution caves from the Helderberg Plateau in Schoharie County, New York were studied to investigate unusual sediment packages previously interpreted to be deposits laid down during stagnant ice-cover conditions of the Wisconsin glaciation. The sediment package, consisting of white finely laminated silts and clays are overlain by coarse gravels, in turn overlain by dark silts and clays. Analysis of 63 sediment samples was inconclusive in terms of organic content, but indicated a higher degree of fine-grained calcite material in the white clays than in the overlying units. The caves with the white clays exist only within the footprint of Glacial Lake Schoharie, with lower elevation caves containing a thicker white clay sequence, a measure of the duration of lake cover. The sediment sequence represents glacial rock flour formed under stagnant lake conditions, overlain by outwash deposits emplaced during lake termination, and more recent sediment from soil-loss deposition.

In this study four different aspects of primary successions on glacier forelands in South-Central Norway are investigated. First, general vegetation and environment trends, which have been observed by other scientists, were studied on two forelands. It is shown that the two selected forelands (one low- and one high-altitude foreland, Nigardsbreen and Storbreen, respectively) differ in the speed of vegetation cover change and in the overall species richness developed over the last 250 years since deglaciation. This is attributed to differences in the severity of the environment between the two forelands. Some support for an early peak in the number of species was found for the Nigardsbreen foreland, whereas the Storbreen foreland shows no significant trend in the development of species richness. Life-forms and soil-depth change on both forelands in the predicted manner. A novel approach for the use of Ellenberg indicator values for the estimation of pH-values from the existent vegetation shows highly significant correlations between predicted pH values and trends measured for similar terrain ages from a study by Messer (1988). Investigation at two different scales indicated that small-scale disturbances (< 100 m) may influence the mosaic of the environment, which affects the results of the chronosequence approach. By using a strict geometrical sampling design more variable conditions entered the analyses than with the stratified random sampling schemes adopted by others, such as Matthews (1979b). Some loss in the power of analysing the data occurred, but the results are still consistent with hypotheses about primary succession on glacier forelands. Second, new aspects of the temporal development and successional change of plant communities were investigated on the same two forelands. There is some evidence of succession from a pioneer community to the local climax community of the surrounding area for both forelands. There is also support for the correlation of timedependent environmental variables with the successional development of plant communities. A new application of Ellenberg indicator values in ordinations was assessed for its value in estimating average environmental conditions derived from the vegetation. As with the previous analyses, investigation of community development at two different scales supported the importance of sampling scale on the analysis of succession data. Third, spatially explicit analyses of distribution patterns of dominant woody species was developed as a means to investigate processes and formulate hypotheses about primary succession on glacier forelands. The data for this part of the study was collected on five glacier forelands, three low-altitude (Nigardsbreen, Austerdalsbreen and Bødalsbreen) and two high-altitude (Storbreen and Høgvaglbreen). Pattern descriptors including perimeter/area index, autocorrelation measures and fractal dimensions, support the hypothesis of differential colonisation of wind and animaldispersed species. Even more convincing is the result that low- and high-altitude forelands show significant differences in the patterns exhibited by wind and animals dispersed species. This result is thought to be related to the differences in environmental severity affecting the establishment of colonising species. Finally, logit modelling of the distributions of dominant woody species provides insights into the sampling effort needed to gather enough data for meaningful analyses. It also leads to the identification of important factors influencing the distribution of those species.

Glacial-dominated areas pose unique challenges to downstream communities in adapting to recent and continuing global climate change, including increased threats of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) that have substantial impacts on regional social, environmental and economic systems increasing risk due to flooding of downstream communities. In this dissertation, two lakes with potential to generate GLOFs were studied, Imja Lake in Nepal and Palcacocha Lake in Peru. At Imja Lake, basic data was generated that allowed the creation of a conceptual model of the lake. Ground penetrating radar and bathymetric surveys were performed. Also, an inundation model was developed in order to evaluate the effectiveness of a project that seeks to reduce flooding risk by lowering the lake at least 3 meters. In Peru, a GLOF inundation model was created. Also, the vulnerability of the people living downstream in the City of Huaraz was calculated, and the impacts of an early warning system were evaluated. The results at Imja indicated that the lake deepened from 98 m in 2002 to 116 m in 2012. Likewise, the lake volume increased from 35.8 to 61.6±1.8 million m3 over the past decade. The GPR survey at Imja and Lhotse-Shar glaciers shows that the glacier is over 200 m thick in the center of the glacier. The modeling work at Imja shows that the proposed project will not have major impacts downstream since the area inundated does not reduce considerably unless the lake is lowered by about 20 m. In Huaraz, the results indicate that approximately 40646 people live in the potentially inundated area. Using the flow simulation and the Peru Census 2007, a map of vulnerability was generated indicating that the most vulnerable areas are near the river. Finally, the potential number of fatalities in a worst case GLOF scenario from Lake Palcacocha was calculated to be 19773 with a standard deviation of 1191 if there is no early warning system and 7344 with a standard deviation of 1446 people if an early warning system is installed. Finally, if evacuation measures are improved the number reduces to 2865 with a standard deviation of 462. / text

A new spatially telescoping approach was proposed to improve measurement flexibility and account for hydrologic scale in field studies of groundwater-surface water (GW-SW) interaction. We applied this spatially telescoping approach in a study GW-SW interactions along Lucile Creek, Alaska. Catchment-scale data were used to screen areas of potentially significant GW-SW exchange, indicating groundwater contribution from a deeper regional aquifer along the middle to lower reaches of the stream. This initial assessment was tested using reach-scale estimates of groundwater contribution during base flow conditions. The reach-scale measurements indicated a large increase in discharge along the middle reaches of the stream accompanied by a shift in chemical composition towards a regional groundwater end member. Point measurements of vertical water fluxes were used to evaluate spatial and temporal variability of GW-SW exchange within representative reaches. The spatially telescoping approach identified locations of GW-SW exchange and improved interpretation of reach-scale and point-scale measurements.

Doctora en Ciencias, Mención Geología / El presente trabajo aborda la discusión sobre los factores que controlan las Alturas de las Líneas de Equilibrio (ELA's) en el último ciclo glacial-interglacial en la cordillera de Los Andes frente a Santiago. A partir del análisis de imágenes satelitales se estudia la variación histórica de las ELA's y se discutien los factores climáticos de primer orden asociados a esa variación. A partir del análisis geomorfológico y geocronológico se determina la posición y temporalidad de los estadios glaciales durante el Pleistoceno tardío. Finalmente se realiza una estimación de la posición de las ELA's durante este mismo período a partir de distintos métodos y se compara con su posición actual. El aumento de las temperaturas mínimas estacionales y anuales favorece los procesos de ablación y en consecuencia contribuyen a la disminución continua de las coberturas de nieve. Por su parte, los eventos de precipitación estival constituyen el factor clave para el aumento de las coberturas supraglaciales y el quiebre de la tendencia negativa en las áreas englaciadas de la cuenca del río Volcán, confirmando que es este el factor de primer orden que condiciona el avance de los glaciares en Los Andes subtropicales. Las Alturas de las Líneas de Equilibrio Glaciar reportan ascensos desde 1989 a 2015 lo que indica aumento de las áreas de ablación y una disminución de las áreas de acumulación y en consecuencia incrementos de procesos de fusión. El sistema glacial de San Gabriel corresponde a un avance durante un Máximo Avance Glacial Local o LLGM entre los ~45-36 ka BP, concordante con eventos de mayor precipitación y humedad en Los Andes centrales entre los ~33°S y ~35°S. Por su parte, el sistema glacial de La Engorda, registra dos pulsos de avance glacial datados entre los ~24-18 y ~10 ka BP. Estos pulsos son consistentes con los eventos húmedos reportados en Laguna Tagua Tagua (Valero-Garcés et al., 2005). Depósitos glaciolacustres y fluvioglaciales de baja energía en la zona proglacial del sistema de La Engorda, datados a través de métodos 14C, registran temporalidad vinculada con un período frío breve denominado Younger Dryas. Las variaciones en las ELA's modernas respecto a las estimadas para los períodos del Último Máximo Glacial (LGM) y Último Máximo Glacial Local (LLGM), se realizan a través de la reconstrucción de paleoglaciares, los descensos en las Alturas de las Líneas de Equilibrio son concordantes con las variaciones del flanco este de la cordillera de Los Andes, observándose disminuciones de ~1000 - 1200 metros, entre el período actual y el LGM. Los resultados de esta tesis confirman la importancia de las precipitaciones en los avances de los glaciares de montaña de Los Andes frente a Santiago y sugieren la relevancia tanto de la elevación de las temperaturas mínimas como de la disminución de la cantidad de días con registro bajo 0°C en su retroceso. Estos resultados son consistentes con las estimaciones de ELA's a escala del Pleistoceno tardío y la variación de sólo 500 metros entre el LLGM (~45-36 ka BP) en el sistema de San Gabriel y el LGM (~24-18 ka BP) en el sistema glacial de La Engorda vinculado a condiciones paleoclimáticas de mayor precipitación; por otro lado la abrupta elevación de las ELA's entre el LGM y la actualidad son coherentes con disminuciones en las precipitaciones así como también aumentos en las temperaturas. Lo anterior muestra la sensibilidad de los glaciares subtropicales de Los Andes en relación al escenario de calentamiento regional proyectado en el marco del cambio global.