Die vorliegende Arbeit beinhaltet verschiedene Aspekte der Embryogenese des Pfeilschwanzkrebses Limulus polyphemus (Chelicerata, Xiphosura), darunter die frühe Neurogenese, die Axogenese, eine Analyse der "Kopf"segmentierung bei Cheliceraten und anderen Arthropoden, sowie das Expressionsmuster des Homöoboxgens Distal-less insbesondere in neuronalen Zusammenhängen. Darüber hinaus wurde eine neue Embryonalstadieneinteilung geleistet. Markierungen mit Phalloidin sowie weiterer neurospezifischer Marker ergaben, daß die frühe Neurogenese bei Limulus polyphemus durch die Immigration von Zellclustern erfolgt. Die Zellen nehmen eine flaschenförmige Gestalt annehmen, bevor sie sich aus dem ventralen Neuroektoderm lösen. Die Anzahl der Zellen pro Zellcluster steigt mit fortschreitender Entwicklung. Die Zellcluster konzentrieren sich in in Zentrum jedes Hemisegmentes, und in ihrem dorsalen Bereich beginnt die rasch voranschreitende Axogenese. Die Untersuchung der "Kopf"segmentierung mittels alpha-Tubulin-Markierungen bei Limulus polyphemus, Triops cancriformis (Crustacea) und Lepisma saccharina (Hexapoda) ergab sowohl bei der Entwicklung des circumoesophagealen Neuropilringes und der Innervierung der dazugehörigen Anhangspaare als auch hinsichtlich des Verlaufs des Stomatogastrischen Nervensystems beachtliche Übereinstimmungen, die entgegen der klassischen Auffassung den Schluß zulassen, daß das Deutocerebrum der Cheliceraten keineswegs reduziert wurde oder mit dem Tritocerebrum verschmolzen ist, sondern die Chelicere innerviert. Somit wäre das Chelicerenneuromer homolog zum Deutocerebrum der Crustacea und Hexapoda (1. Antenne). Der Vergleich des Expressionsmuster des Homöoboxgens Distal-less bei Limulus und Lepisma saccharina ergab neben den typischen Expressionen in auswachsenden Extremitäten- und andern Anhangsknospen bei beiden Vertretern Expressionen in neuronalen Zusammenhängen (im Lobus opticus, Ganglien bei Limulus oder in das ZNS umgebende Zellen bei Lepisma), an den verschiedensten Positionen späterer Sinnesorgane wie Mechano- oder Chemorezeptoren. Doppelmarkierungen mit Synorf-1 deuten darauf hin, daß es sich bei den Dll-positiven Zellen zum größten Anteil um Glia-Zellen handelt. / The following study contains different aspects of the embryology of the horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus (Chelicerata, Xiphosura) with the main focus on early neurogenesis, axogenesis and the "head"segmentation in chelicerates and other arthropods. The expression pattern of the homeobox gene Distal-less was examined with main focus on neuronal correlations. In addition, a new staging was provided. Phalloidin stainings and other markers showed that the early neurogenesis in Limulus polyphemus happens via immigration of cell clusters. Cellclusters in the prosoma contain cells that become bottle shaped before they immigrate from the ventral neuroectoderm. The number of these cells increases during further development, and the cells concentrate in the middle of each hemisegment. Axogenesis starts at the dorsal edge of these concentrated cellclusters and progresses quite fast building the typical ladder like CNS of arthropods. The investigation of the "head"segmentation using alpha-tubulin stainings in Limulus polyphemus, Triops cancriformis (Crustacea), and Lepisma saccharina (Hexapoda) showed remarkable similarities in the development of the circumesophageal neuropil ring, the related appendages, and the course of the stomatogastric nerves. These results lead to the thesis that the deutocerebrum of chelicerates is neither completely reduced nor totally merged into the tritocerebrum but innervates the chelicerae which contradicts the classical view. According to these results the neuromer of the chelicerae would be homologous to the deutocerebrum of Crustaceans and Hexapods (first antennae). The expression pattern of the homeobox gene Distal-less was examined and compared in Limulus polyphemus and Lepisma saccharina. Beside the typical expression pattern in the developing appendages a participation of the gene in development of the nervous system was observed. Dll positve cells were found in or at least in direct contact with the CNS (optical lobe, ganglia in Limulus or surrounding the entire CNS including the brain of Lepisma), at different positions of later mechano- and chemoreceptors (lateral spines, bristles, flabellum, Johnstons organ etc.). Double stainings using Dll and Synorf-1 showed that at least most of these Dll-postive cells are most likely glia cells.

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L’état fébrile et le vieillissement normal sont deux processus physiologiques conduisant à un déséquilibre hydrominéral de l'organisme. Ce déséquilibre se traduit par une déshydratation sévère qui peut être aggravée par des conditions climatiques comme nous l'avons vu durant l'été 2003. Dans les deux cas, fièvre et vieillissement, l'organisme répond par une stimulation du système hypothalamo-neurohypophysaire conduisant à l’augmentation de la libération de vasopressine ou hormone antidiurétique, qui pourrait prévenir une déshydratation possiblement critique. Cependant, les modalités d’activation des neurones vasopressinergiques (AVP) dans ces conditions restent inconnues.Le but des recherches réalisées dans cette thèse, a été de déterminer les mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires responsables de l’activation des neurones vasopressinergiques (AVP) lors d’une réponse inflammatoire et au cours du vieillissement.Nous avons pu démontrer dans la première partie de ce travail que lors d’un épisode inflammatoire (mimé par une injection de lypopolysaccharide LPS) l’activité des neurones AVP est rapidement augmentée et cette activation est soutenue pendant plus de six heures. De plus, cette activation n’est pas due à un effet potentiel secondaire du LPS sur l'osmolarité plasmatique ou la pression artérielle. L’activation précoce des neurones AVP par le LPS semble être soutenue par l’IL-6 (qui mime les effets du LPS), puisque l’activation par le LPS est bloquée par une injection préalable d’anticorps anti-IL-6.Dans la seconde partie de ce travail, nous avons pu montrer le traitement chronique d’IGF-I chez le rat âgé permet de restaurer une fonction urinaire comparable à celle observée chez l’adulte, en agissant vraisemblablement directement sur les neurones AVP puisque le taux plasmatique d’AVP chez les rats âgés traités par l’IGF-I revient à des valeurs normales, i.e., équivalente à celle de rats adultes. Cette hypothèse est confortée par le fait que (i) les neurones AVP expriment le récepteur de l’IGF-I et qu’il n’y a pas de différence dans l’expression de ces récepteurs entre rats âgés et adultes, et (ii) les neurones AVP sont inhibés par l’IGF-I.Enfin, dans la dernière partie de ce travail, nous avons pu montrer que lors du vieillissement, les neurones AVP sont activés, ce qui se traduit par un taux plasmatique d’AVP élevé et un taux d’apeline très faible. De même, les astrocytes sont activés et ne présentent plus de plasticité morphofonctionelle. La microglie, en état d’alerte, ne semble pas jouer un rôle prépondérant dans cette suractivation neuronale et astrocytaire. De plus, cette suractivation neuronale est palliée par un traitement central par un anticorps anti-IL-6 ou un inhibiteur non sélectif des canaux TRPV. Cependant, un traitement central par un anticorps anti-IL-6 n’affecte pas l’expression des TRPV2 dans le noyau supra-optique (NSO). En conclusion générale, il apparait que :1/ L’IL-1 n’est pas le chef d’orchestre de tous les processus inflammatoires. En effet, dans le NSO, l’activation des neurones AVP est soutenue par l’IL-62/ La balance pro- / anti-inflammatoire est un élément importante du dysfonctionnement neuronal. Cependant, le facteur critique du dysfonctionnement des neurones AVP n’est pas la production excessive de facteurs inflammatoires mais l’insuffisante production compensatoire de facteurs anti-inflammatoires.3/ lors du vieillissement, la neuroinflammation responsable du dysfonctionnement des neurones AVP peut être qualifiée de type « chronique à bas bruit », processus dans lequel (i) la microglie, en alerte, voit sa réactivité décuplée lors d'une sollicitation inflammatoire supplémentaire; (ii) le cross-talk astrocytes-neurones est figé dans une configuration d'hyperactivité, semblable à celle observée à l'âge adulte en condition de stimulation physiologique soutenue (comme lors d'une déshydratation), mais qui empêche toute réponse appropriée du réseau à toute demande physiologique supplémentaire, quelle soit transitoire (comme la réponse à une injection aigüe de LPS ou de NaCl 9%) ou soutenue (déshydratation de 48h).Cependant, les données de la littérature montrent le rôle majeur de la microglie dans d'autres types de neuroinflammation dites à « haut bruit », et dont les effets délétères - qui vont du dysfonctionnement neuronal à la neuro-dégénérescence – trouvent leur origine dans la surexpression de molécules microgliales telles l'IL-1 ou le TNF. Pour tenter de comprendre les mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires impliqués dans un tel dysfonctionnement et pour caractériser la nature du dysfonctionnement neuronal, nous avons mis au point un modèle pharmacologique de neuroinflammation à haut bruit, en injectant directement dans les NSO de l'IL-1. Nos données préliminaires montrent que le dysfonctionnement neuronal ainsi que les mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires à l’origine de ce dysfonctionnement diffèrent de ceux observés lors du vieillissement : la microglie est activée et surexprime de nombreuses molécules inflammatoires, probablement à l’origine du dysfonctionnement neuronal (absence de pattern phasique, même lors d’une stimulation osmotique), puisque les astrocytes ne semblent pas être affectés. L’absence de pattern phasique à l’origine du faible taux d’AVP plasmatique traduit une perturbation des propriétés électrophysiologiques intrinsèques sous-tendant ce pattern phasique (récepteurs ; canaux ioniques) et/ou des afférences excitatrices (Glu ; ACh ; Na) ou inhibitrices (GABA) modulant cette activité phasique. / The fever and normal aging are two physiological processes leading to water and mineral imbalance in the body. This imbalance results in severe dehydration which can be aggravated by climatic conditions as we saw during the summer of 2003. In both cases, fever and age, the body responds by stimulating the hypothalamic-neurohypophysial system leading to increased release of vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone, which could possibly prevent dehydration criticism. However, the modalities of activation of vasopressinergic neurons (AVP) in these conditions remain unknown. The aim of the research done in this thesis was to determine the cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for the activation of vasopressinergic neurons (AVP) during an inflammatory response and during aging. We showed ,in the first part of this work, that during an inflammatory episode (mimicked by an injection of lypopolysaccharide LPS) the activity of AVP neurons is rapidly increased and this activation is sustained for more than six hours. Moreover, this activation is not due to a potential secondary effect of LPS on plasma osmolarity and blood pressure. The early activation of AVP neurons by LPS seems to be supported by IL-6 (which mimics the effects of LPS), since activation by LPS is blocked by prior injection of anti-IL-6. In the second part of this work, we showed chronic treatment of IGF-I in old rats can restore bladder function similar to that observed in adults, presumably by acting directly on neurons AVP as the rate plasma AVP in aged rats treated with IGF-I returned to normal values, ie, equivalent to that of adult rats. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that (i) AVP neurons express the receptor for IGF-I and there is no difference in the expression of these receptors between adult and aged rats, and (ii) AVP neurons are inhibited by IGF-I. Finally, in the latter part of this work, we showed that during aging, the AVP neurons are activated, which results in increased serum AVP level and a very low rate of apelin. Similarly, astrocytes are activated and show more morphofunctional plasticity. Microglia does not seem to play a role in neuronal and astrocytic overactivation. Moreover, this neuronal overactivation is overcome by a central processing by an anti-IL-6 or a nonselective TRPV channels. However, an icv treatment by an anti-IL-6 does not affect the expression of TRPV2 in the supraoptic nucleus (SON). In general conclusion, it appears that: 1 / IL-1  is not the conductor of all inflammatory processes. Indeed, in the NSO, the activation of AVP neurons is sustained by IL-6 2 / the balance of pro-/ anti-inflammatory is significant in neuronal dysfunction. However, the critical factor in the dysfunction of AVP neurons is not the excessive production of inflammatory factors, but the insufficient production of compensatory anti-inflammatory factors. 3 / during aging, neuroinflammation responsible for the dysfunction of AVP neurons can be classified as type "chronic and low-grade" process in which (i) microglia, in alert, saw its reactivity increased tenfold during inflammatory additional solicitation; (ii) cross-talk astrocyte-neuron is stuck in a pattern of hyperactivity, similar to that observed in adulthood under conditions of sustained physiological arousal (such as in dehydration), but that would prevent the proper response network to any additional physiological demand, which is transient (as the response to acute injection of LPS or NaCl 9%) or sustained (48 h dehydration). However, literature data show the important role of microglia in other types of neuroinflammation called "high grade", and whose deleterious effects - ranging from neuronal dysfunction to neurodegeneration - are rooted in Microglial overexpression of molecules such as IL-1 or TNF  . In an attempt to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in such dysfunction and to characterize the nature of neuronal dysfunction, we have developed a pharmacological model of neuroinflammation high grade by injecting IL-1  directly into the SON. Our preliminary data show that neuronal dysfunction and the cellular and molecular mechanisms behind this dysfunction differ from those observed during aging: activated microglia overexpressing many inflammatory molecules, probably at the origin of neuronal dysfunction ( absence of phasic pattern, even during osmotic stimulation), since astrocytes do not appear to be affected. The absence of phasic pattern causing the low plasma AVP reflects a disturbance of intrinsic electrophysiological properties underlying the phasic pattern (receptors, ion channels) and / or afferent excitatory (Glu, ACh, Na) or inhibitory (GABA) modulating the phasic activity.

Methamphetamine is a psychomotor stimulant that produces hyperactivity and euphoria and can lead to drug-seeking and abuse. An estimate from 2005 put the cost of methamphetamine abuse to society at an estimated 23.4 billion dollars. One of methamphetamine's effects is activation of glial cells and associated neuroinflammatory activity in the periphery and CNS. Glia are responsible for maintaining calcium homeostasis, neuroplasticity, immune activity, and cell signaling. Activation of glia and neuroinflammation are becoming recognized as links in drug abuse-related behavior. The goal of the present work was to assess the ability of ibudilast, AV1013, and minocycline, three glial cell modulating compounds, to attenuate responding in rodent procedures that model different aspects of methamphetamine abuse-related behavior. First, Ibudilast (1.8, 7.5, 13 mg/kg) and AV1013 (10, 30, 56 mg/kg) were examined for their effects on methamphetamine-induced (3 mg/kg) locomotor activity and sensitization in mice, the latter thought to involve neurocircuitry common with drug relapse. Ibudilast and AV1013 dose-dependently attenuated methamphetamine-induced locomotor activity and its sensitization. Second, ibudilast (1, 7.5, 10 mg/kg), AV1013 (1, 10, 30 mg/kg), and minocycline (10, 30, 60 mg/kg) were examined for their effects on methamphetamine self-administration (0.001, 0.03, and 0.1 mg/kg/inf) in rats. All three compounds significantly reduced methamphetamine (0.03 mg/kg/inf) self-administration. Results suggested baseline self-administration rate as a possible determinant of these effects; however, follow-up tests with ibudilast while controlling for baseline response rate dismissed this possibility. Additional follow-up tests identified whether the attenuation of operant response rates was specific to methamphetamine-maintained behavior. Using a behavioral economic approach, all three test compounds were determined to also affect non-nutritive banana pellet-maintained responding when the baseline strengths maintained by methamphetamine and banana pellet delivery were matched. Finally, ibudilast was evaluated for its effects on methamphetamine discrimination in rats, a procedure thought to model clinical subjective effects. Ibudilast (1, 7.5, 10 mg/kg) did not significantly modify methamphetamine’s discriminative stimulus effects when trained at either 1 or 0.56 mg/kg. These results support the hypothesis that attenuation of glial cell activity and neuroinflammation may be linked to some abuse-related behaviors of methamphetamine, reinforcing their examination as novel targets for treating methamphetamine abuse.

Η πρωτεΐνη ΒΜ88 είναι νευροειδική πρωτεΐνη με ευρεία κατανομή σε κύτταρα του κεντρικού και περιφερικού νευρικού συστήματος των θηλαστικών. O βιοχημικός χαρακτηρισμός του μορίου έδειξε ότι πρόκειται για διαμεμβρανική πρωτεΐνη που εντοπίζεται κυρίως στις μεμβράνες ενδοκυττάριων οργανιδίων (μιτοχόνδρια, ενδοπλασματικό δίκτυο) ενώ το μεγαλύτερο τμήμα του μορίου της προσανατολίζεται προς το κυτταρόπλασμα. Στο ενήλικο κεντρικό νευρικό σύστημα η πρωτεΐνη ΒΜ88 εκφράζεται σε νευρώνες ενώ δεν ανιχνεύεται σε γλοιοκύτταρα. Αναπτυξιακά, η έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 ανιχνεύεται κατά την έναρξη της νευρογένεσης στον εγκέφαλο του αρουραίου ενώ τα επίπεδα της έκφρασή της αυξάνονται µε την ηλικία και παραµένουν υψηλά στο ενήλικο ζώο. Λειτουργικά πειράματα in vitro υπερέκφρασης της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 συσχετίζουν την πρωτεΐνη ΒΜ88 με την έξοδο των κυττάρων από τον κυτταρικό κύκλο και την έναρξη της διαδικασίας διαφοροποίησής τους προς νευρωνικό φαινότυπο. Τα παραπάνω δεδομένα μας ώθησαν να μελετήσουμε την έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 κατά τη διαδικασία της νευρογένεσης και της διαφοροποίησης των νευρώνων in vivo, έτσι ώστε να διερευνήσουμε το ρόλο της κατά την ανάπτυξη του εγκεφάλου. Για το σκοπό αυτό επιλέξαμε ως σύστημα μελέτης τον αναπτυσσόμενο φλοιό του τελεγκεφάλου των τρωκτικών. Αρχικά χαρτογραφήθηκε η έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 στο φλοιό του αναπτυσσόμενου τελεγκεφάλου κατά την εμβρυϊκή ηλικία Ε14-Ε18 και πραγματοποιήθηκαν πειράματα διπλού ανοσοφθορισμού με αντισώματα έναντι της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 και έναντι μαρτύρων του κυτταρικού πολλαπλασιασμού όπως είναι η κυκλίνη D1 (μάρτυρας της φάσης G2/M του κυτταρικού κύκλου) και το ανάλογο της θυμιδίνης BrdU (που ενσωματώνεται κατά τη φάση της αντιγραφής του DNA - φάση S του κυτταρικού κύκλου). Τα αποτελέσματα αυτών των πειραμάτων έδειξαν ότι η πρωτεΐνη ΒΜ88 εκφράζεται τόσο στους διαφοροποιημένους νευρώνες, όσο και σε ενεργά πολλαπλασιαζόμενα προγονικά κύτταρα του αναπτυσσόμενου φλοιού του αρουραίου και του ποντικού. Κατόπιν, διερευνήσαμε αν η πρωτεΐνη ΒΜ88 εκφράζεται κατά την περίοδο της νευρογένεσης ειδικά, σε προγονικά κύτταρα της γενεαλογίας των νευρώνων ή αν εκφράζεται και σε πρόδρομα κύτταρα της γλοιϊκής γενεαλογίας του τελεγκεφάλου. Για το σκοπό αυτό πραγματοποιήθηκαν διπλές και τριπλές ανοσοϊστοχημικές χρώσεις με αντισώματα έναντι της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 και έναντι νευρωνικών ή γλοιΐκών μαρτύρων, σε συνδυασμό με αντισώματα έναντι μαρτύρων κυτταρικού πολλαπλασιασμού. Παρατηρήθηκε ότι η πρωτεΐνη ΒΜ88 εκφράζεται αποκλειστικά και μόνο σε κύτταρα της νευρωνικής γενεαλογίας και όχι σε πολλαπλασιαζόμενα ή διαφοροποιημένα κύτταρα της γλοιϊκής γενεαλογίας. Τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα επιβεβαιώθηκαν από το γεγονός ότι η έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 προσδιορίστηκε και σε νευροεπιθηλιακά κύτταρα του τύπου «ακτινωτής γλοίας» που σύμφωνα με την τρέχουσα αντίληψη, αποτελούν την πλειοψηφία του πληθυσμού των πρόδρομων νευρογενετικών κυττάρων του φλοιού κατά την εμβρυϊκή ηλικία Ε14-Ε18. Αργότερα μόνο, τα κύτταρα αυτά θα αποτελέσουν προδρόμους της γλοιϊκής γενεαλογίας, και συγκεκριμένα μετά τη 18η εμβρυϊκή ημέρα και κατά τις πρώτες ημέρες μετά τη γέννηση. Στη συνέχεια πραγματοποιήθηκαν συνδυαστικά πειράματα σήμανσης των πρόδρομων κυττάρων του εγκεφάλου με δύο διαφορετικούς μάρτυρες της φάσης S του κυτταρικού κύκλου, με τα οποία έγινε εφικτή η παρακολούθηση in vivo, και για το διάστημα 12 και 24 ωρών, του πολλαπλασιασμού, της μετανάστευσης και της διαφοροποίησης μιας ομάδας πρόδρομων νευρικών κυττάρων. Τα πειράματα αυτά οδήγησαν στο συμπέρασμα ότι η έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 σχετίζεται με τις ασύμμετρες κυτταρικές διαιρέσεις, η εμφάνιση των οποίων σηματοδοτεί την έναρξη της νευρογένεσης στο φλοιό και την εμφάνιση των πρώτων μεταμιτωτικών νευρώνων. Έτσι, φαίνεται ότι η έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 στα πρόδρομα νευρογενετικά κύτταρα προκαλεί την έξοδό τους από τον κυτταρικό κύκλο. Η έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 μελετήθηκε και στον εγκέφαλο του ενήλικου αρουραίου όπου εντοπίστηκε, εκτός από τους ώριμους νευρώνες, και στα πρόδρομα κύτταρα του πρόσθιου μεταναστευτικού τόξου (RMS) όπου λαμβάνει χώρα η δευτερογενής νευρογένεση. Το αποτέλεσμα αυτό έρχεται σε συμφωνία με τις προηγούμενες παρατηρήσεις μας και συνδέουν επιπλέον την έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 με τη διαδικασία της νευρογένεσης στον ενήλικο εγκέφαλο. Τέλος, μελετήσαμε τόσο την έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 όσο και τα επίπεδα μεταγραφής του γονιδίου ΒΜ88 στον αναπτυσσόμενο εγκεφαλικό φλοιό ποντικών που φέρουν τη μετάλλαξη Small eye (ποντίκια Sey/Sey). Στα ποντίκια αυτά δεν είναι λειτουργικό το γονίδιο Pax6 που είναι υπεύθυνο για την επαγωγή της νευρογένεσης στο ραχιαίο μέρος του τελεγκεφάλου. Έτσι, ο αριθμός των νευρώνων που παράγονται στο φλοιό αυτών των μεταλλαγμένων ποντικών είναι ελαττωμένος στο μισό από αυτόν που συναντάμε στα ποντίκια φυσικού τύπου. Όπως αναμενόταν, παρατηρήθηκε ότι τόσο η έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 όσο και τα επίπεδα μεταγραφής του γονιδίου ΒΜ88 είναι μειωμένα στα ποντίκια Sey/Sey. Συμπερασματικά, τα αποτελέσματα της εργασίας μας έδειξαν ότι η πρωτεΐνη ΒΜ88 χαρακτηρίζει τη γενεαλογία των νευρώνων από τα πρόδρομα εμβρυϊκά κύτταρα μέχρι τους ώριμους νευρώνες και επομένως αποτελεί ένα νέο μάρτυρα της νευρωνικής γενεαλογίας. Επιπλέον, δείξαμε ότι η πρωτεΐνη ΒΜ88 συγκεντρώνει τις απαραίτητες ιδιότητες που χαρακτηρίζουν ένα «νευρογενετικό παράγοντα». Συγκεκριμένα: α) εκφράζεται τόσο στους διαφοροποιημένους νευρώνες όσο και σε ενεργά πολλαπλασιαζόμενα κύτταρα της νευρωνικής γενεαλογίας, β) δεν εκφράζεται σε πρόδρομα κύτταρα της γλοιϊκής γενεαλογίας, γ) εκφράζεται σε πρόδρομα κύτταρα νευρώνων κατά τη διάρκεια της νευρογένεσης στο ενήλικο άτομο και τέλος δ) η έκφρασή της μειώνεται σε ζώα που φέρουν μεταλλάξεις οι οποίες έχουν ως αποτέλεσμα την εμφάνιση ελαττωματικής νευρογένεσης. Η κατανομή της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 κατά την ανάπτυξη του εγκεφάλου καθώς και ο εντοπισμός της σε βλαστικά κύτταρα του ενήλικου εγκεφάλου, η συσχέτιση της έκφρασης του μορίου με τις ασύμμετρες νευρογενετικές κυτταρικές διαιρέσεις καθώς και η χαρακτηριστική αύξηση των επιπέδων έκφρασης της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 κατά τη μετάβαση των προγονικών κυττάρων σε διαφοροποιημένους νευρώνες, όλα συνηγορούν για τη συμμετοχή του μορίου στις διαδικασίες της εξόδου από τον κυτταρικό κύκλο και τη διαφοροποίηση των νευρώνων in vivo. Οι παρατηρήσεις αυτές, όχι μόνον είναι συμβατές με προηγούμενα πειραματικά δεδομένα όσον αφορά τον προσδιορισμό του ρόλου της πρωτεΐνης σε in vitro βιολογικά συστήματα, αλλά δημιουργεί ενδιαφέρουσες προοπτικές για την αξιοποίηση της πρωτεΐνης ΒΜ88 σε θεραπευτικές προσεγγίσεις για την αντιμετώπιση νευροεκφυλιστικών ασθενειών ή/και τραυματισμών του εγκεφάλου. / BM88 is a neuron-specific protein widely expressed in the cells of the mammalian central and peripheral nervous system. Its biochemical characterization revealed that is an integral membrane protein, located at the membranes of intra-cellular organelles (mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum) with the bulk of the protein facing towards the cytoplasm. In the adult central nervous system BM88 is expressed in neurons but it is not detected in glial cells. During development, BM8 is initially expressed at the onset of neurogenesis in the rat brain, its levels rise along age and remain high in the adult. In vitro experiments of BM88 protein over-expression suggest that BM88 is implicated in cell cycle exit and the initiation of differentiation into a neuronal phenotype. These findings lead us to study the expression of BM88 during neurogenesis and neuronal differentiation in vivo in purpose to investigate its role in brain development. For this reason, we have chosen as a model of study the developing cortex of rodent telencephalon. Initially, we investigated the distribution of BM88 protein in the developing cortex. To this end, we performed double-labeling experiments in sections from the developing rat brain at embryonic days E14 and E18 using antibodies to BM88 and markers of the cell cycle such as cyclin D1 (G2/M phase marker) and BrdU, a thymidine analogue that is incorporated during DNA replication (S phase marker). The findings from these experiments revealed that BM88 protein is expressed in the differentiated neurons as well as in actively proliferating progenitor cells of the developing cortex of rat and mouse. We next sought to investigate whether BM88 is expressed during neurogenesis specifically in the progenitor cells of the neuronal lineage or in the progenitor cells of the glial lineage of the telencephalon as well. For this reason we performed double and triple-labeling experiments with antibodies to BM88 and to markers of the neuronal or glial lineages, in combination with markers of the cell cycle. We observed that BM88 protein is expressed exclusively in the neuronal progenitors and never in the proliferating or differentiated cells of the glial lineage. The above results were supported also by the fact that BM88 protein was detected in neuroepithelial “radial glial” cells that are cells recently reported to be the majority of neuronal progenitors of the cortex during the embryonic days E14-E18. These cells will turn into glial progenitors only after the embryonic day E18 and during early postnatal days. Moreover, we developed an experimental protocol that allowed us to mark the progenitor cells of the brain with two different markers of the S phase of the cell cycle. Thus, we could observe in vivo, during a period of 12 and 24 hours, the migration and differentiation of a group of neural progenitor cells. The results from this experiment lead us to the conclusion that the expression of BM8 protein is associated with the asymmetric cell divisions that mark the onset of neurogenesis in the cortex and the appearance of the first post-mitotic neurons. Thus, it appears that the expression of BM88 protein in the neuronal progenitor cells causes their exit from the cell cycle. BM88 protein expression was also detected in the adult rat brain, not only in the mature neurons but also in the precursor cells of the rostral migratory stream (RMS), where the secondary neurogenesis occurs. This result is in accordance with our previous observations and support additionally that there is a correlation between BM88 expression and the process of neurogenesis in the adult brain. Finally, we investigated the expression of BM88 protein as well as the transcriptional levels of BM88 gene in the developing cortex of Small eye mutant mice (Sey/Sey mice). These mice lack the functional Pax6 gene that is responsible for the induction of neurogenesis in the dorsal telencephalon. Thus, the number of neurons that are produced in the cortex of the mutant mice is reduced by half in comparison to that of the wild type mice. As expected we observed reducer levels of expression both of BM88 protein and BM88 transcripts in the Sey/Sey mice. To conclude, the results of our study demonstrate that BM88 protein marks the lineage of neurons, all along from the stage of embryonic precursor cells to the stage of mature neurons, and for this reason is a new marker of the neuronal lineage. Furthermore, we showed that BM88 protei has all the characteristics that can identify a molecule as a “neurogenic factor”. More specifically: a) it is expressed both in differentiated neurons and in actively proliferating cells of the neuronal lineage, b) it is absent in the precursors of the glial lineage, c) it is present in the adult neuronal precursors, and finally d its expression is reduced in mutants with neurogenic defects. The expression pattern of BM88 protein during brain development, its presence in stem cells in the adult brain, its association with the asymmetric divisions of neurons as well as the characteristic high levels of BM88 protein expression during the neuronal transition from the progenitor stage to the differentiated stage, all together coincides to the implication of BM88 in the exit from the cell cycle and in the differentiation of neurons in vivo. These observations not only agree with previous experimental data, but also create new perspectives for the use of BM88 protein in therapeutic approaches in order to control the neurodegenerative diseases or/and brain damages.

Alterações em estruturas específicas do SNC, em particular, no sistema fronto-límbico, assim como a diminuição das células neuronais e gliais parece estar envolvida com a fisiopatologia do Transtorno do Humor Bipolar (THB). A glia exerce um importante papel no SNC, entre os quais, a produção de neurotrofinas, em especial, o Fator de Crescimento Neurotrófico derivado de Células da Glia (GDNF). Um marcado aumento dos níveis séricos de GDNF em pacientes deprimidos (F= 42.31; p=0.004; one-way ANOVA) e maníacos (F= 42.31; p=0.001; one-way ANOVA) foi demonstrado neste estudo, sugerindo um possível envolvimento desta neurotrofina com o THB. Por outro lado, alterações nos fatores neurotróficos afetam os mecanismos de plasticidade sináptica, podendo contribuir para as deficiências cognitivas apresentadas pelos pacientes. Deficiências cognitivas, em especial, as falhas de memória são descritas, as quais influenciam a funcionalidade destes indivíduos, principalmente a nível ocupacional e social. As altas taxas de disfuncionalidade apresentadas pelos pacientes e a falta de padronização dos instrumentos usados nos estudos para avaliar funcionalidade, nos levaram ao desenvolvimento de uma escala. A Escala Breve de Funcionalidade (FAST) é um instrumento de rápida e fácil aplicação desenvolvida para usar em psiquiatria, em especial, paciente com THB. A FAST avalia objetivamente seis áreas específicas da funcionalidade, tais como autonomia, trabalho, cognição, relacionamentos interpessoais, finanças e lazer. A validação da escala foi realizada através de testes psicométricos, tais como: consistência interna (alfa de Cronbach’s igual a 0.909), validade concorrente comparada com a GAF (r=-0.903; p<0.001), test-retest (0.98; p<0.01), validade em detectar diferenças entre episódios agudos (maníacos: 40.44±9.15 e deprimidos 43.21±13.34) e períodos de remissão (18.55±13.19; F=35.43; p<0.001) e análise fatorial. Os resultados obtidos foram muito positivos, tornando o instrumento válido e prontamente disponível para o uso na prática clínica e investigação. Palavras-chave: transtorno do humor bipolar, GDNF, glia, neurotrofinas, funcionalidade, disfuncionalidade, escalas de funcionalidade. / Alterations in specific structures of CNS, in particular, fronto-lymbic system, and a reduction of neurons and glial cells appear to be involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. Glial cells have an important role in the CNS, for example, the production of neurotrophins, especially, Glial Cell Line-derived Neurotrophic Factor (GDNF). In this study, we showed a marked increased in the serum levels of GDNF in depressive (F= 42.31; p=0.004; one-way ANOVA) and manic bipolar patients (F= 42.31; p=0.001; one-way ANOVA), which suggested that GDNF could be involved in the physiopathology of bipolar disorder. On the other hand, alterations in the neurotrophic factors hinder synaptic plasticity mechanisms, may result in cognitive impairment in bipolar patients. In particular, memory difficulties have been reported here, and these difficulties influence occupational and social functioning in these subjects. High rates of functional impairment showed by bipolar patients and a lack of standardization of the instruments available to assess functioning in the studies motivated us to development the scale. The Functioning Assessment Short test (FAST) is a rapid instrument and easy to apply developed to use in psychiatry, especially, bipolar patients. It assesses six specific domains of functioning, such as autonomy, occupational functioning, cognitive functioning, financial issues and leisure time. The validation of FAST was performed by psychometric tests such as internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha: 0.909), concurrent validity compared to the GAF (r=-0.903; p<0.001), validity as a discriminative measure to detect the difference between euthymic (18.55; F=23.59; p<0.001) and acute patients (manic: 38.50; depressive: 42.38; mixed: 43.21), factorial analysis and test-retest reliability (0.953; p<0.01). The FAST scale showed strong psychometric properties and it is now available for use in both clinical practice and investigation settings.

Alterações em estruturas específicas do SNC, em particular, no sistema fronto-límbico, assim como a diminuição das células neuronais e gliais parece estar envolvida com a fisiopatologia do Transtorno do Humor Bipolar (THB). A glia exerce um importante papel no SNC, entre os quais, a produção de neurotrofinas, em especial, o Fator de Crescimento Neurotrófico derivado de Células da Glia (GDNF). Um marcado aumento dos níveis séricos de GDNF em pacientes deprimidos (F= 42.31; p=0.004; one-way ANOVA) e maníacos (F= 42.31; p=0.001; one-way ANOVA) foi demonstrado neste estudo, sugerindo um possível envolvimento desta neurotrofina com o THB. Por outro lado, alterações nos fatores neurotróficos afetam os mecanismos de plasticidade sináptica, podendo contribuir para as deficiências cognitivas apresentadas pelos pacientes. Deficiências cognitivas, em especial, as falhas de memória são descritas, as quais influenciam a funcionalidade destes indivíduos, principalmente a nível ocupacional e social. As altas taxas de disfuncionalidade apresentadas pelos pacientes e a falta de padronização dos instrumentos usados nos estudos para avaliar funcionalidade, nos levaram ao desenvolvimento de uma escala. A Escala Breve de Funcionalidade (FAST) é um instrumento de rápida e fácil aplicação desenvolvida para usar em psiquiatria, em especial, paciente com THB. A FAST avalia objetivamente seis áreas específicas da funcionalidade, tais como autonomia, trabalho, cognição, relacionamentos interpessoais, finanças e lazer. A validação da escala foi realizada através de testes psicométricos, tais como: consistência interna (alfa de Cronbach’s igual a 0.909), validade concorrente comparada com a GAF (r=-0.903; p<0.001), test-retest (0.98; p<0.01), validade em detectar diferenças entre episódios agudos (maníacos: 40.44±9.15 e deprimidos 43.21±13.34) e períodos de remissão (18.55±13.19; F=35.43; p<0.001) e análise fatorial. Os resultados obtidos foram muito positivos, tornando o instrumento válido e prontamente disponível para o uso na prática clínica e investigação. Palavras-chave: transtorno do humor bipolar, GDNF, glia, neurotrofinas, funcionalidade, disfuncionalidade, escalas de funcionalidade. / Alterations in specific structures of CNS, in particular, fronto-lymbic system, and a reduction of neurons and glial cells appear to be involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. Glial cells have an important role in the CNS, for example, the production of neurotrophins, especially, Glial Cell Line-derived Neurotrophic Factor (GDNF). In this study, we showed a marked increased in the serum levels of GDNF in depressive (F= 42.31; p=0.004; one-way ANOVA) and manic bipolar patients (F= 42.31; p=0.001; one-way ANOVA), which suggested that GDNF could be involved in the physiopathology of bipolar disorder. On the other hand, alterations in the neurotrophic factors hinder synaptic plasticity mechanisms, may result in cognitive impairment in bipolar patients. In particular, memory difficulties have been reported here, and these difficulties influence occupational and social functioning in these subjects. High rates of functional impairment showed by bipolar patients and a lack of standardization of the instruments available to assess functioning in the studies motivated us to development the scale. The Functioning Assessment Short test (FAST) is a rapid instrument and easy to apply developed to use in psychiatry, especially, bipolar patients. It assesses six specific domains of functioning, such as autonomy, occupational functioning, cognitive functioning, financial issues and leisure time. The validation of FAST was performed by psychometric tests such as internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha: 0.909), concurrent validity compared to the GAF (r=-0.903; p<0.001), validity as a discriminative measure to detect the difference between euthymic (18.55; F=23.59; p<0.001) and acute patients (manic: 38.50; depressive: 42.38; mixed: 43.21), factorial analysis and test-retest reliability (0.953; p<0.01). The FAST scale showed strong psychometric properties and it is now available for use in both clinical practice and investigation settings.

Alterações em estruturas específicas do SNC, em particular, no sistema fronto-límbico, assim como a diminuição das células neuronais e gliais parece estar envolvida com a fisiopatologia do Transtorno do Humor Bipolar (THB). A glia exerce um importante papel no SNC, entre os quais, a produção de neurotrofinas, em especial, o Fator de Crescimento Neurotrófico derivado de Células da Glia (GDNF). Um marcado aumento dos níveis séricos de GDNF em pacientes deprimidos (F= 42.31; p=0.004; one-way ANOVA) e maníacos (F= 42.31; p=0.001; one-way ANOVA) foi demonstrado neste estudo, sugerindo um possível envolvimento desta neurotrofina com o THB. Por outro lado, alterações nos fatores neurotróficos afetam os mecanismos de plasticidade sináptica, podendo contribuir para as deficiências cognitivas apresentadas pelos pacientes. Deficiências cognitivas, em especial, as falhas de memória são descritas, as quais influenciam a funcionalidade destes indivíduos, principalmente a nível ocupacional e social. As altas taxas de disfuncionalidade apresentadas pelos pacientes e a falta de padronização dos instrumentos usados nos estudos para avaliar funcionalidade, nos levaram ao desenvolvimento de uma escala. A Escala Breve de Funcionalidade (FAST) é um instrumento de rápida e fácil aplicação desenvolvida para usar em psiquiatria, em especial, paciente com THB. A FAST avalia objetivamente seis áreas específicas da funcionalidade, tais como autonomia, trabalho, cognição, relacionamentos interpessoais, finanças e lazer. A validação da escala foi realizada através de testes psicométricos, tais como: consistência interna (alfa de Cronbach’s igual a 0.909), validade concorrente comparada com a GAF (r=-0.903; p<0.001), test-retest (0.98; p<0.01), validade em detectar diferenças entre episódios agudos (maníacos: 40.44±9.15 e deprimidos 43.21±13.34) e períodos de remissão (18.55±13.19; F=35.43; p<0.001) e análise fatorial. Os resultados obtidos foram muito positivos, tornando o instrumento válido e prontamente disponível para o uso na prática clínica e investigação. Palavras-chave: transtorno do humor bipolar, GDNF, glia, neurotrofinas, funcionalidade, disfuncionalidade, escalas de funcionalidade. / Alterations in specific structures of CNS, in particular, fronto-lymbic system, and a reduction of neurons and glial cells appear to be involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. Glial cells have an important role in the CNS, for example, the production of neurotrophins, especially, Glial Cell Line-derived Neurotrophic Factor (GDNF). In this study, we showed a marked increased in the serum levels of GDNF in depressive (F= 42.31; p=0.004; one-way ANOVA) and manic bipolar patients (F= 42.31; p=0.001; one-way ANOVA), which suggested that GDNF could be involved in the physiopathology of bipolar disorder. On the other hand, alterations in the neurotrophic factors hinder synaptic plasticity mechanisms, may result in cognitive impairment in bipolar patients. In particular, memory difficulties have been reported here, and these difficulties influence occupational and social functioning in these subjects. High rates of functional impairment showed by bipolar patients and a lack of standardization of the instruments available to assess functioning in the studies motivated us to development the scale. The Functioning Assessment Short test (FAST) is a rapid instrument and easy to apply developed to use in psychiatry, especially, bipolar patients. It assesses six specific domains of functioning, such as autonomy, occupational functioning, cognitive functioning, financial issues and leisure time. The validation of FAST was performed by psychometric tests such as internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha: 0.909), concurrent validity compared to the GAF (r=-0.903; p<0.001), validity as a discriminative measure to detect the difference between euthymic (18.55; F=23.59; p<0.001) and acute patients (manic: 38.50; depressive: 42.38; mixed: 43.21), factorial analysis and test-retest reliability (0.953; p<0.01). The FAST scale showed strong psychometric properties and it is now available for use in both clinical practice and investigation settings.

La corne dorsale de la moelle épinière (CDME) est un site d’intégration et de modulation de l’information somatosensorielle. Les laminae profondes de la CDME jouent un rôle important dans la modulation des informations nociceptives. Notre objectif a été de caractériser les effets de la NA sur la transmission synaptique des laminae profondes de la CDME. Nous montrons que la NA facilite la transmission synaptique inhibitrice dans les laminae III-V de la CDME. Ce phénomène met en jeu l’activation d’adrénocepteurs alpha1, alpha2, et bêta et nécessite une communication interlaminaire intacte entre les laminae III-IV et V. L’inhibition du métabolisme glial produit les mêmes effets qu’une section mécanique entre les laminae IV et V. Une interaction entre les cellules gliales et les neurones des laminae profondes la CDME semble donc indispensable à l’effet facilitateur de la NA. / The dorsal horn of the spinal cord (DH) is an important site of integration and modulation of somatosensory information and deep laminae of the DH play an important role in the modulation of nociceptive information in the neuronal network of the spinal cord.Our aim was to characterize the effects of NA on synaptic transmission in deep laminae of the DH.We show that NA facilitates inhibitory synaptic transmission in laminae III-IV of the DH. This phenomenon involves the activation of alpha1, alpha2, and beta adrenoceptors and requires intact interlaminar communications between laminae III-IV and V. Glial cell metabolism inhibition has the same consequences as a mechanical section between laminae IV and V. These results indicate that an interaction between glial cell and deep laminae neurons of the DH seems essential for the facilitatory effect of NA on inhibitory synaptic communications in laminae III-IV of the DH.