Racional: A epilepsia do lobo temporal está comumente associada à farmacorresistência e tem a esclerose hipocampal como achado neuropatológico em mais da metade dos casos. Histologicamente, a esclerose hipocampal está associada à perda neuronal diferencial e gliose, além de alterações nos níveis de moléculas associadas à homeostase da água tecidual, como a aquaporina 4 e a molécula de matriz sulfato de condroitina. Em imagens de ressonância nuclear magnética, a esclerose é caracterizada por redução de volume em sequências ponderadas em T1, aumento de sinal e tempo de relaxamento em sequências ponderadas em T2 e redução na transferência de magnetização. Justificativa e Objetivos: Uma vez que tanto o sinal T2 quando a transferência de magnetização são dependentes da água tecidual, nosso objetivo é avaliar, na formação hipocampal de pacientes com epilepsia do lobo temporal, as correlações entre populações celulares e moléculas ligadas à homeostase da água e as imagens ponderadas em T2 e transferência de magnetização. Visamos ainda definir, na formação hipocampal de indivíduos sem alterações neuropatológicas, o volume de cada um dos subcampos hipocampais. Metodologia: Pacientes com epilepsia do lobo temporal farmacorresistente (ELT, n = 43), bem como voluntários sadios (controle radiológico, CH, n = 20), foram submetidos a exames de ressonância magnética em máquina de 3T para mensuração da volumetria hipocampal, tempo de relaxamento T2 e transferência de magnetização hipocampal (exames in vivo). Após o tratamento cirúrgico para o controle das crises, os hipocampos dos pacientes com ELT foram fixados por 8 dias e submetidos aos exames ex vivo em máquina de 3T para cálculo do tempo de relaxamento T2 de cada subcampo hipocampal. Hipocampos controle (Controle historadiológico, CHR, n = 14), foram obtidos de autópsias de pacientes sem histórico ante-mortem de doença neurológica ou presença de patologia no exame do encéfalo pos mortem. Ambos os grupos controle foram pareados para idade em relação ao grupo ELT. Alguns dos casos CHR (n = 6) foram também submetidos à imagem 3D T2 em máquina de 4,7T para cálculo de volumetria dos subcampos hipocampais. Após emblocamento em parafina, secções coronais hipocampais dos casos CHR e ELT foram submetidas às técnicas de histoquímica básica Hematoxilina e Eosina e Luxol Fast Blue, e às imuno-histoquímicas para avaliação das populações neuronais (NeuN), astrócitos reativos (GFAP), micróglias ativadas (HLA-DR) e para a expressão de aquaporina 4 (AQP4) e níveis de sulfato de condroitina (CS-56). Para a comparação entre os grupos, foram realizados testes t para dados paramétricos e Mann-Whitney para dados não-paramétricos. Testes de correlação foram empregados para análise da associação entre as avaliações histológicas e os exames de ressonância magnética. Resultados: Pacientes com ELT apresentaram menor volume hipocampal, maior tempo de relaxamento T2 e menor transferência de magnetização no exame in vivo, quando comparados com o CR. O exame ex vivo para a volumetria dos subcampos hipocampais em casos do grupo CHR indicou que a fascia dentata, a região CA1 e o subículo correspondem à 85 % do volume hipocampal total. Quanto ao tempo de relaxamento T2 ex vivo, foi observado aumento em todos os subcampos hipocampais do grupo ELT, à exceção da fascia dentata, quando comparados ao CHR. A avaliação da densidade neuronal indicou redução significativa em todos os subcampos dos casos ELT, à exceção do subículo, quando comparados ao CHR. Em relação aos valores do grupo CHR, foi observada astrogliose em quase todos subcampos da formação hipocampal (a exceção da zona subgranular e do hilo) e microgliose em todos os subcampos (exceto pelo subículo) dos casos com ELT. Pacientes com ELT apresentaram redução na expressão de aquaporina 4 perivascular em todos os subcampos do hipocampo, comparados ao CHR. Aumento nos níveis de sulfato de condroitina foi observado em todos os subcampos da formação hipocampal, à exceção da camada granular, nos pacientes com ELT. O volume hipocampal e a transferência de magnetização in vivo dos pacientes com ELT correlacionaram-se tanto com a população neuronal como com os níveis de sulfato de condroitina, enquanto que o tempo de relaxamento in vivo correlacionou-se com a população astroglial e os níveis de sulfato de condroitina. O exame ex vivo corroborou a correlação entre a população glial e o tempo de relaxamento observado nos pacientes com ELT. A diferença entre o tempo de relaxamento in vivo e ex vivo correlacionou-se tanto com a difusibilidade da água no tecido como com os níveis de sulfato de condroitina. Conclusões: Nossos dados indicam correlação entre a patologia hipocampal e as imagens de ressonância nuclear magnética, sendo que a maior qualidade das imagens ex vivo permitiu uma avaliação mais direta entre o sinal de ressonância e a patologia, indicando importância da população celular e matriz extracelular para o volume hipocampal e a transferência de magnetização, e da astrogliose para o tempo de relaxamento T2. Finalmente, nossos dados mostraram que CA1, subículo e fascia dentata tem grande participação no volume hipocampal, sendo que alterações nestas regiões tem um papel mais relevante nas alterações observadas na ressonância magnética, como indicado por nossas correlações. / Rationale: Drug resistant temporal lobe epilepsy is often associated with hippocampal sclerosis. Histological evaluation reveals differential neuronal loss, gliosis and changes in molecules associated with water homeostasis, such as aquaporin 4 and chondroitin sulfate. Magnetic resonance imaging in these cases often reveals hippocampal atrophy, increased T2 signal and T2 relaxation and reduced magnetization transfer ratio in the hippocampus. Aims: Once both T2 signal and magnetization transfer are affected by tissue water, our goal was to evaluate, in the hippocampus of drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy patients who underwent surgery for seizure control, the associations between cellular populations, aquaporin 4 and chondroitin sulfate with T2 relaxation time and magnetization transfer. Additionally, we intended to measure the individual volume of each hippocampal subfield in hippocampus from patients without neurological disease. Methods: Patients with drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE, n = 43) and age-matched health volunteers (radiological control, RC, n = 20) were submitted to magnetic resonance in a 3T machine for hippocampal volumetry measure, T2 relaxation and magnetization transfer (in vivo examination). After surgical treatment for seizure control, hippocampi from the TLE patients were fixed in formalin for 8 days and then submitted to ex vivo imaging in 3T for relaxation time of every hippocampal subfield. Control hippocampi were obtained from autopsies of age-matched patients without ante mortem history of neurological disease or post mortem neurological pathology, and underwent the same ex vivo imaging (histo-radiological control, HRC, n = 14). Six cases from the HRC underwent 3D T2 imaging in a 4.7T machine, in order to measure the volumes of the hippocampal subfields. Paraffin embedded hippocampal sections from TLE and HRC were submitted to Hematoxilin-Eosin and Luxol Fast Blue histochemistries, and to immunohistochemistries for the evaluation of neurons (NeuN), reactive astrocytes (GFAP), activated microglia (HLA-DR), for aquaporin 4 (AQP4) and for chondroitin sulfate (CS-56). Students t-test or Mann-Whitneys test were performed for comparison between groups, and correlation tests were performed for the comparison between histological and magnetic resonance measures. Results: Patients with TLE presented reduced hippocampal volume, increased T2 relaxation time and reduced magnetization transfer, when compared to RC. The ex vivo volumetry of the hippocampal subfields revealed that fascia dentata, CA1 and subiculum together correspond to 85 % of the total hippocampal volume. Ex vivo relaxation time, as the in vivo, were increased in the subfields of TLE patients, when compared to HRC. Compared to HRC, TLE patients presented neuron loss and microgliosis in all hippocampal subfields but the subiculum, and astrogliosis in all hippocampal subfields but the subgranule zone and the hilus. Reduced perivascular aquaporin 4 was observed in all hippocampal subfields of TLE patients, and increased chondroitin sulfate was observed in all hippocampal subfields, with the exception of granule cell layer, of TLE patients, when compared to HRC. In TLE, both in vivo hippocampal volume and magnetization transfer correlated with the levels of chondroitin sulfate and the neuronal population, whereas the in vivo relaxation time correlated with the astroglial population and the levels of chondroitin sulfate. Ex vivo relaxation time also correlated with the astroglial population in TLE patients. The difference between in vivo and ex vivo relaxation values correlated with water difusibility and the levels of chondroitin sulfate. Conclusion: Our data indicate the importance of neuron population and extracellular matrix to both hippocampal volume and magnetization transfer, and of the reactive astrocytes for T2 relaxation. Ex vivo relaxation time allowed a more detailed evaluation, and indicated more robust correlations between reactive astrocytes and T2 relaxation. Finally, Our data indicated that CA1, the subiculum and fascia dentata are the major contributors to hippocampal volume, so changes in these subfields most likely will affect magnetic resonance imaging.

Les maladies dégénératives de la rétine sont une des causes principales de cécité. Parmi différentes stratégies thérapeutiques actuellement étudiées, notre équipe s’intéresse au potentiel régénératif de la rétine. Une source cellulaire d'intérêt sont les cellules de Müller, principal type de cellules gliales de la rétine, capables de se réactiver en cas de dégénérescence et d’adopter certaines caractéristiques de cellules souches. Elles entrent alors dans un état appelé gliose réactive. Tandis que chez certaines espèces comme le poisson, elles permettent la régénération de la rétine, elles ont des capacités régénératives très limitées et inefficaces chez les mammifères. Une meilleure connaissance des mécanismes moléculaires régissant la gliose réactive des cellules de Müller est donc essentielle si l’on veut identifier des cibles thérapeutiques capables de stimuler le potentiel de régénération de ces cellules. Dans ce contexte, le but de mon projet de thèse a été d’étudier le rôle du co-facteur de transcription YAP dans la réactivation des cellules de Müller. Cette protéine est l’effecteur de la voie de signalisation Hippo, connue pour son implication dans la régulation des cellules souches et la régénération de certains organes.Dans un premier temps, nous avons réalisé une analyse transcriptomique qui a montré que la voie Hippo/YAP est une des principales voies dérégulées dans un modèle de dégénérescence rétinienne chez la souris. Nous avons ensuite montré que la protéine YAP est spécifiquement exprimée dans les cellules de Müller et que son expression et son activité transcriptionnelle sont augmentées au cours de la dégénérescence lorsque les cellules de Müller deviennent réactives. Ces données suggèrent pour la première fois un lien entre YAP et la gliose réactive dans la rétine. Par conséquent, dans un second temps, mon projet de thèse a consisté en l’étude fonctionnelle de YAP dans les cellules de Müller. Dans ce but, nous avons généré par croisements chez la souris un modèle inductible de délétion du gène Yap spécifiquement dans ces cellules. Ce modèle a permis de montrer qu’en absence de Yap en conditions physiologiques, plusieurs gènes spécifiques des cellules de Müller sont dérégulés, suggérant un dysfonctionnement de ces cellules. L’étude phénotypique a permis de révéler que ces dérégulations moléculaires conduisent à un vieillissement prématuré des cellules de Müller et à une baisse de la vision chez les souris âgées. Ces données suggèrent que YAP est requis pour le fonctionnement normal des cellules gliales de Müller. Nous avons ensuite examiné l’impact de la perte de Yap dans les cellules de Müller en conditions de dégénérescence des photorécepteurs. Une analyse transcriptomique a permis de montrer que différents aspects de la réponse moléculaire des cellules de Müller réactives sont affectés. Parmi les processus biologiques dérégulés, nous nous sommes intéressés à la régulation de la prolifération cellulaire. Nous avons montré que YAP est nécessaire à l’augmentation de l’expression de gènes associés à la réentrée dans le cycle cellulaire de la glie de Müller. Par ailleurs, nos résultats suggèrent que des composants de la voie de signalisation EGFR, connue pour son rôle central dans la réactivation des cellules de Müller, sont régulés par YAP.Dans l’ensemble, ces résultats révèlent l’importance de YAP (i) dans le fonctionnement des cellules de Müller en conditions physiologiques pour maintenir l’homéostasie rétinienne, et (ii) dans la régulation des processus de réactivation de ces cellules en conditions dégénératives. De plus, ces données permettent de proposer un modèle selon lequel YAP serait impliqué dans le contrôle de la réentrée des cellules de Müller dans le cycle cellulaire via une interaction avec la voie de signalisation EGFR. Ce travail a donc contribué à approfondir nos connaissances du réseau de signalisation impliqué dans la réactivation des cellules de Müller de la rétine des mammifères. / Retinal dystrophies are one of the main causes of blindness. Among the different therapeutic strategies currently studied, our team is interested in the regenerative potential of endogenous retinal cells. A cellular source of interest are Müller cells, which are the main type of glial cells in the retina. These cells are able to reactivate in case of retinal degeneration and adopt various characteristics of stem cells. They enter a state called reactive gliosis. While in some species such as the fish, they allow the complete regeneration of the retina, they have very limited and ineffective regenerative capacities in mammals. Increasing our knowledge of the complex molecular response of Müller cells to retinal degeneration is thus essential for the development of promising new therapeutic strategies. In this context, the aim of my thesis project was to study the role of the co-transcription factor YAP in Müller cells reactivation. This protein is the main effector of the Hippo signaling pathway which is a crucial player in the field of stem cell biology and regeneration.As a first step, we performed a transcriptomic analysis, which revealed that the Hippo/YAP pathway is one of the main signaling deregulated in a mouse model of photoreceptor degeneration. In particular, we found that YAP is specifically expressed in Müller cells and strongly upregulated upon retinal degeneration, when these cells are reactivated. We thus uncovered for the first time a link between the Hippo/YAP pathway and reactive gliosis in the retina. Consequently, the second part of my thesis project was to undertake a functional study of YAP in Müller cells. For this purpose, we generated, by crossing, a mouse model allowing for Yap conditional knockout specifically in these cells. This model allowed us to show that Yap deletion leads to deregulation of several Müller cell specific genes. A phenotypic analysis revealed that these molecular deregulations lead to premature aging of Müller cells and visual defects in old mice. These results suggest that YAP is required for normal function of Müller glial cells. We then studied the impact of Yap deletion in Müller cells under degenerative conditions. A transcriptomic analysis revealed that various aspects of the molecular response of reactive Müller cells are affected in the absence of Yap. Among the deregulated biological processes, we focussed in particular in the regulation of cell proliferation. We found that YAP is required to trigger cell cycle gene upregulation that occurs in Müller glial cells following photoreceptor cell death. Furthermore, our results suggest that some components of the EGFR signaling pathway, which is known for its central role in the reactivation of Müller cells in pathological conditions, are regulated by YAP in Müller cells.Taken together, these results highlight the importance of YAP (i) in Müller cell function under physiological conditions to maintain retinal homeostasis, and (ii) in the regulation of Müller cell reactivation process under degenerative conditions. Moreover, these data allow us to propose a model in which YAP would be involved in the control of Müller glia cell cycle re-entry through its interaction with the EGFR signaling pathway. Therefore, this work has contributed to increase our knowledge of the signaling network involved in the reactivation of Müller cells in the mammalian retina.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Reactive gliosis is known to have a beneficial and a degenerative effect following injury to neurons. Although many factors have been implicated in reactive gliosis, their role in regulating this change is still unclear. We investigated the role of bone morphogenetic proteins in reactive gliosis in vivo and in vitro. In vivo, IHC analysis indicated reactive gliosis in the 6 week Ins2Akita mouse and WPK rat retinas. Expression of BMP7 was upregulated in these models, leading to an increase in the phosphorylation of downstream SMAD1. In vitro, treatment of murine retinal astrocyte cells with a strong oxidizing agent such as sodium peroxynitrite regulated RNA levels of various markers, including GFAP, CSPGs, MMPs and TIMPs. BMP7 treatment also regulated RNA levels to a similar extent, suggesting reactive gliosis. Treatment with high glucose DMEM and BMP4, however, did not elicit increase in levels to a similar degree. Increase in SMAD levels and downstream targets of SMAD signaling such as ID1, ID3 and MSX2 was also observed following treatment with sodium peroxynitrite in vitro and in the 6 week Ins2Akita mouse retinas in vivo. These data concur with previously established data which show an increase in BMP7 levels following injury. It also demonstrates a role for BMP7 in gliosis following disease. Further, it suggests SMAD signaling to play a role in initiating reactivity in astrocytes as well as in remodeling the extracellular matrix following injury and in a disease condition.

No / Microglial activation and behavioral abnormalities occur before neuronal loss in experimental murine prion disease; the behavioral changes coincide with a reduction in synaptic plasticity. Because synaptic plasticity depends on an intact perineuronal net (PN), a specialized extracellular matrix that surrounds parvalbumin (PV)-positive GABAergic (gamma-aminobutyric acid [GABA]) inhibitory interneurons, we investigated the temporal relationships between microglial activation and loss of PN and PV-positive neurons in ME7 murine prion disease. Anesthetized C57Bl/6J mice received bilateral intracerebral microinjections of ME7-infected or normal brain homogenate into the dorsal hippocampus. Microglial activation, PrP accumulation, the number of PV-positive interneurons, and Wisteria floribunda agglutinin-positive neurons (i.e. those with an intact PN) were assessed in the ventral CA1 and subiculum at 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 weeks postinjection. Hippocampal areas and total neuron numbers in the ventral CA1 and subiculum were also determined. Loss of PN coincided with early microglial activation and with a reduction in synaptic plasticity. No significant loss of PV-positive interneurons was observed. Our findings suggest that the substrate of the earliest synaptic and behavioral abnormalities in murine prion disease may be inflammatory microglia-mediated degradation of the PN.

No description available.

The aim of the work described in this thesis is to investigate the nature and mechanisms of action of repellent cues for growing axons. In particular I try to resolve the controversy in the literature regarding the need for protein synthesis in the growth cone in response to external guidance cues. My results resolve the conflicting data in the literature on Semaphorin-3A signalling, where differing labs had shown that inhibiting protein synthesis either blocks or has no effect upon repulsion. They demonstrate the presence of at least two independent pathways, protein synthesis-dependent mTOR activation and -independent GSK3? activation. The higher sensitivity of the synthesis-dependent pathway, and its redundancy at higher concentrations where synthesis-independent mechanisms can evoke a full collapse response alone, resolve the apparent conflict. My experiments also demonstrated that Nogo-?20, a domain of Nogo-A, requires local protein synthesis to cause collapse. Unlike Semaphorin-3A, the dependence of collapse upon protein synthesis is concentration-independent and does not involve guanylyl cyclase, but it does share a dependence upon mTOR activity and the synthesis of RhoA, sufficient to cause collapse downstream of Semaphorin-3A. The other axon-repelling domain of Nogo-A, Nogo-66, is partially dependent upon the proteasome instead. It does not share a common pathway with Nogo-?20, except that both are RhoA-dependent. I further attempted to identify the nature of a repulsive activity found in grey matter, ruling out a previously suggested candidate identity. Finally, I examined the phenomenon of nitric oxide-induced growth cone collapse. My experiments revealed that S-nitrosylated glutathione causes growth cone collapse through the activity of protein disulphide isomerase. This mechanism shows only a partial dependence upon soluble guanylyl cyclase, but I argue that it has total dependence upon an S-nitrosylated donor. Coupled with its apparent relation to S-palmitoylation, the reciprocal of S-nitrosylation, I propose that nitric oxide causes collapse by crossing the cell membrane to inhibit S-palmitoylation-determined localisation of proteins. These results reveal some of the many pathways involved in growth cone collapse, whose further characterisation may provide new targets for the treatment of injuries of the central nervous system.

No / Recent studies have revealed extensive cortical demyelination in patients with progressive multiple sclerosis (MS). Demyelination in gray matter lesions is associated with activation of microglia. Macrophages and microglia are known to express myeloperoxidase (MPO) and generate reactive oxygen species during myelin phagocytosis in the white matter. In the present study we examined the extent of microglial activation in the cerebral cortex and the relationship of microglial activation and MPO activity to cortical demyelination. Twenty-one cases of neuropathologically confirmed multiple sclerosis, with 34 cortical lesions, were used to assess microglial activation. HLA-DR immunolabeling of activated microglia was significantly higher in demyelinated MS cortex than control cortex and, within the MS cohort, was significantly greater within cortical lesions than in matched non-demyelinated areas of cortex. In homogenates of MS cortex, cortical demyelination was associated with significantly elevated MPO activity. Immunohistochemistry revealed MPO in CD68-positive microglia within cortical plaques, particularly toward the edge of the plaques, but not in microglia in adjacent non-demyelinated cortex. Cortical demyelination in MS is associated with increased activity of MPO, which is expressed by a CD68-positive subset of activated microglia, suggesting that microglial production of reactive oxygen species is likely to be involved in cortical demyelination.