Diabetes mellitus, whether type 1 or type 2, offers special challenges to home health care providers. Treatment of diabetes can become increasing complex. While insulin remains the cornerstone of treatment in patients with type 1 diabetes (T1DM), the utilization of insulin to safely control blood glucose is also necessary for many patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Many different insulin products are available, with each product possessing different characteristics and adverse effect potential. Balancing glycemic control with patient safety is paramount. The individualization of insulin therapy can be challenging for both patients and health care professionals. Regular evaluation of blood glucose monitoring is vital for patient assessment. This article provides a review of insulin for providers caring for patients in the home health care setting.

The present study is based on the hypotheses that a better user experience in mobile applications increases the frequency of use among users, and that a higher frequency of use of continuous glucose monitoring systems leads to better health status in patients with diabetes.The purpose of this study is to understand how users perceive and interact with CGM software.The result of this study shows that existing CGM applications and the functionalities they provide are very much appreciated by the participants. Many of the user needs may however not have been met in one application alone, since a large proportion of the participants use more than one CGM application.This study highlights importance of providing options for customization in every aspect offunctionality due to the individuality of each user’s condition, and that the settings of such should consider minimizing the cognitive load for the user.

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Type 1 diabetes is one of the most common chronic conditions in childhood and adolescence. Despite ongoing development of more physiological insulin preparations, recent advancements in insulin pump technology and more accurate blood glucose monitoring, in clinical practice it remains challenging to achieve normoglycaemia whilst reducing the risk of hypoglycaemia, particularly in young people with type 1 diabetes. Closed-loop insulin delivery (the artificial pancreas) is an emerging technology gradually progressing from bench to clinical practice. Closed-loop systems combine glucose sensing with computer-based algorithm informed insulin delivery to provide real-time glucose-responsive insulin administration. The key objective of my thesis is to evaluate the safety, efficacy and utility of closed-loop insulin delivery in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes outside of the research facility setting. Results of five clinical trials are presented in the main chapters of this thesis. In a mechanistic study, the impact of glucose sensor operation duration on efficacy of overnight closed-loop was investigated comparing closed-loop performance on day 1 of sensor insertion to day 3 to 4 of sensor. Twelve adolescents with type 1 diabetes attended the research facility for two overnight visits. The sequence of the interventions was random. Despite differences in sensor accuracy, overnight CL glucose control informed by sensor glucose on day 1 or day 3-4 after sensor insertion was comparable. The model predictive controller appears to mitigate against sensor inaccuracies. In home settings, overnight closed-loop application was evaluated over three months in 25 children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes aged six to 18 years. The study was conducted at three centres in the UK and adopted a randomised cross-over design. Compared to sensor-augmented pump therapy, overnight home use of closed-loop increased the proportion of time sensor glucose was in target, and reduced mean glucose and hypoglycaemia. Two randomised crossover studies evaluated the safety and efficacy of day-and-night hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery in young people with type 1 diabetes aged 10 to 18 years over seven days, and 21 days, respectively. A total of 24 subjects were enrolled in this single centre trial. Free-living home use of day-and-night closed-loop in suboptimally controlled adolescents with type 1 diabetes was safe, and improved glucose control without increasing the risk of hypoglycaemia. Finally, closed-loop technology was assessed in five very young children (aged one to seven years) with type 1 diabetes in a two-period, crossover study. Closed-loop was used during both 3-week intervention periods, either with standard strength insulin (U100), or with diluted insulin (U20). The order of intervention was random. Free-living home use of day-and-night hybrid closed-loop in very young children with type 1 diabetes was feasible and safe. Glucose control was comparable during both intervention periods. Thus, use of diluted insulin during closed-loop insulin delivery might not be of additional benefit in this population. In conclusion, studies conducted as part of my thesis demonstrate that use of hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery systems in children and adolescents aged one to 18 years in free daily living without remote monitoring or supervision is feasible, safe and effective. My work supports the progression of this technology from research to mainstream clinical practice.

Introduktion Diabetes Mellitus typ 1 är en autoimmun sjukdom som så småningom leder till total insulinbrist vilket är livshotande. Insulinbristsjukdomen är kronisk och är i Sverige en av de vanligaste folksjukdomarna. I världen insjuknar i dagsläget flest antal i Sverige och Finland. Vad gäller behandling vid Diabetes Mellitus typ 1 får alla patienter i dagsläget insulininjektioner antingen via insulinpenna eller via insulinpump. Glukosnivån i blodet bör mätas kontinuerligt för att kunna optimera behandlingsterapin. En annan typ av behandlingsterapi vid Diabetes Mellitus typ 1 är SAP (Sensor- augmented pump). Denna metod innebär att insulinpumpsbehandling kombineras med kontinuerlig glukosmätning (continuous glucose monitoring, CGM).Att mäta glykerat hemoglobin (HbA1c) har blivit en viktig del för att följa samt utvärdera hur behandlingen av Diabetes Mellitus fungerar. Ett lågt HbA1c ger en minskad risk för komplikationer och är ett tydligt mål i behandlingen samtidigt som risken för hypoglykemi måste tas i anspråk. Syfte Syftet med denna litteraturstudie är att undersöka om HbA1c-värden kan förbättras hos patienter med Diabetes Mellitus typ 1 vid användning av SAP-behandlingsterapi jämfört med CSII-behandlingsterapi (continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion) kombinerat med SMBG (self monitoring of blood glucose) och MDI-behandlingsterapi (multiple daily injections) kombinerat med SMBG. Syftet är även att undersöka om det finns något samband mellan användningsfrekvens av CGM-sensorer och förbättrat HbA1c-värde. Metod Denna litteraturstudie baseras på åtta stycken artiklar som hittades via databasen PubMed. Resultat och diskussion Resultatet, av de utvalda originalstudierna, visar att SAP-behandlingsterapi har en bättre effekt på optimering av HbA1c-värden, hos patienter med Diabetes Mellitus typ 1, om det jämförs med MDI-behandlingsterapi kombinerat med SMBG. Om förbättringen beror på SAP-terapibehandlingen eller om CSII och CGM separat hade gett effekten är svårt att avgöra. Däremot ses ingen signifikant skillnad, i resultatet i de originalstudier som valts ut, av denna effekt vid jämförelse av SAP-behandlingsterapi mot CSII kombinerat med SMBG. Ytterligare studier med ett större antal deltagare behövs som underlag för att kunna avläsa detta. Vad gäller relationen mellan frekvens av CGM-sensoranvändning och förändring i HbA1c-värden finns både studier som stödjer och studier som förkastar. Vid ett eventuellt byte av behandlingsterapi bör hänsyn tas till andra aspekter än surrogatmåttet HbA1c. Slutsats Resultatet av denna litteraturstudie visar att SAP-behandlingsterapi i vissa fall kan reducera HbA1c-värden i jämförelse med andra metoder. En del resultat stödjer även sambandet mellan ökad användningsfrekvens av CGM-sensorer och reducering av HbA1c-värden. Det måste tas hänsyn till andra parametrar vid eventuellt byte av behandlingsterapi. Det är av stor vikt att patienterna känner sig tillfreds med sin behandlingsterapi då det kan bibehålla motivationen till att optimera sina HbA1c-värden.

Introduction: The diploma thesis deals with the issue of compensation of type 1 diabetes mellitus during pregnancy and its relation to the health of mother and child. It further summarizes and describes the variable factors that may have a direct effect on current glycemic variability and long- term compensation of diabetes. Aims: The theoretical part describes the characteristics of type 1 diabetes mellitus and the possibilities of therapy in pregnancy. Subsequently, factors influencing the compensation of diabetes in this period are summarized and described in more detail, especially food composition and possibilities of influencing postprandial glycemia, effects of type and intensity of physical activity and psychosocial aspects related mainly to stress from potential negative effects of glycaemia on the fetus. At the end of the theoretical part, the risks and complications for the mother and the fetus arising from long-term unsatisfactory compensation of diabetes are presented. The aim of the practical part of the thesis was to determine the extent of women's knowledge about the compensation of diabetes in pregnancy, followed by determining the effect of the extent of knowledge on long-term compensation, expressed by glycated hemoglobin. Methods: Data for the diploma thesis were obtained on the...

Introduction: The main goal of the diabetes mellitus type 1 (DM type 1) therapy is the achievement of the best compensation of this disease. One of the tools to attain this compensation is the correctly carried out self-monitoring, from which can be the right dose of the Insulin derived. To estimate the correct dose of the Insulin is the essential knowledge of the actual dietary records, especially the amount of the carbohydrates. The thorough dietary record is in this case another tool how to significantly improve the compensation of DM type 1. Objective: The main objective of this thesis was the description of the influence of the dietary record for the compensation of DM type 1. As the evaluating parameters were set the value of HbA1c before-and-after the observation and the glycemia variability during the observation. The observation had been provided during one month where in the beginning of the observation all patients took part in the educative stay. Methods: The examined sample included in total 34 persons, but 2 of them were excluded for health reasons. The final examined sample was consist of 32 persons, out of them 18 females and 14 males, which suffer from DM type 1. The average age of these patients was 36,6 years ± 12,6, where the average lasting of DM type 1 was 14,9 years ± 9,9. In...

Ziel: In der vorliegenden Studie wurden kontinuierliche Blutzuckertagesprofile über 48 h bei Schwangeren unterschiedlicher Glukosetoleranz erhoben und mit der Ernährung zu häuslichen Bedingungen verglichen. Ergebnisse: Bei den Gestationsdiabetikerinnen wurden statistisch signifikant länger Konzentrationen über 130 mg/dl gemessen als bei den gesunden Schwangeren. Keine Unterschiede ergaben sich in Bezug auf folgende Werte: Mittelwert, Zeitdauern mit Blutzuckerwerten < 50 mg/dl, >120 mg/dl, >140 mg/dl, >150 mg/dl. Periprandial wurden bei den Gestationsdiabetikerinnen und den Schwangeren mit IGT signifikant höhere Maximalwerte im Anschluss an die Mahlzeit gemessen, als bei gesunden Schwangeren. Keine Unterschiede ergaben sich hinsichtlich der Anfangswerte und der Area under the curve. In einigen Gruppen bestanden positive Korrelationen zwischen der Zufuhr von Disacchariden und Parametern der Glukosemessung, in der Gruppe der Gestationsdiabetikerinnen bestand eine signifikante negative Korrelation zwischen dem Stärkekonsum und dem Mittelwert der Glukosemessung. Nach Mahlzeiten, deren Hauptkohlenhydratquelle mit einem höheren glykämischen Index nach Jenkins attribuiert war, fiel die Glukosereaktion größer aus, als bei Mahlzeiten mit niedrigem glykämischem Index. Zusammenfassung: In dieser prospektiven Studie konnte mit Hilfe der Technik der kontinuierlichen Glukosemessung die Verbindung zwischen Blutzuckertagesprofil und Ernährungsgewohnheiten zu häuslichen- also nicht klinisch- artifiziellen- Bedingungen hergestellt werden. / Objective: In the present study continuous glucose profiles in pregnant women with various levels of glucose tolerance were evaluated and compared with their diet in domestic conditions. Results: In women with GDM significantly longer periods with glucose levels above 130 mg/dl were measured than in healthy women. No differences were assessed as to average glucose levels and periods with glucose levels < 50 mg/dl, >120 mg/dl, >140 mg/dl, >150 mg/dl. In pregnant women with gestational diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance higher maximum glucose levels after a meal were found than in healthy women. No differences were found as to glucose levels at the beginning of the meal and area under the curve. In some groups positive correlations were calculated between intake of disaccharides and the glucose measurement, in gestational diabetic women a negative correlation between intake of starch and the average of the glucose level was found. After meals in which the main carbohydrate source was attributed with a high glycemic index change of the glucose level was higher than after meals with a low glycemic index. Conclusion: In the present prospective study we established the relation between glucose profiles measured by the method of continuous glucose monitoring and dietary habits in domestic conditions in pregnant women.