Thesis advisor: Michael Grubb / With the implementation of the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) raising concern of clean energy capital flight from the European Union, investigating the effects of US clean energy expansion policy on international investment shifts is a pertinent issue. This paper uses event studies to analyze debt capital market dynamics through green bond spreads, using conventional corporate and government bonds as separate benchmarks. It finds that the simultaneous extension of ITC and PTC policies in 2015, 2020, and 2021 did not consistently produce a significant effect on green bond markets in the US and EU. This implies that the implementation of clean energy policy in the US has an insignificant impact on green debt capital markets in the US and EU, although impacts on other investment channels cannot be ruled out. A further analysis on green investment sensitivity to interest rates indicated a significant negative sensitivity for green US firms only, although this was inconsistent across measures. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2024. / Submitted to: Boston College. Morrissey School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Economics. / Discipline: Departmental Honors.

This thesis studies the yield differential between green bonds and conventional bonds, the so called green premium or "greenium". By deriving a theoretical model that includes investors' preferences for green assets, two hypothesis are formulated: There exists a negative green bond premium and The negative premium is larger in absolute terms in countries with high environmental performance. In order to estimate the premium, synthetic conventional bonds are constructed having the same characteristics as the green bonds. Two different matching methods are used to construct the synthetic bonds, one based on maturity and one based on correlation. The findings of this study suggest a significant negative green premium between -0.29 and -0.78 basis points. Also, the green premium is more than twice as large, in terms of absolute value, if the issuer is based in a country which has a high environmental performance.

Uppsatsen syftar till att utreda möjligheterna för en investerare att söka ersättning för fel eller brister i ett prospekt för gröna obligationer. Mot bakgrund av detta utreds såväl ansvarsrekvisiten som ansvarssubjekten. Därtill behandlas även betydelsen av råd, rekommendationer och ramverk från branschaktörer. Syftet är vidare att diskutera huruvida ett utökat prospektansvar eller en särreglering av gröna obligationer, helt eller delvis, är motiverad. En grön obligation är ett värdepapper som särskiljer sig från andra värdepapper genom att likviden är förbunden till att investeras i klimatpositiva ändamål. Marknaden för gröna obligationer utvecklas i hög grad genom råd, rekommendationer och ramverk utfärdade av branschorganisationer. Dessa utgör en självreglerande funktion som kompletterar övrig reglering väl, exempelvis beträffande hur likviden får förvaltas. En grön obligation regleras i övrigt genom sedvanliga obligationsrättsliga regler. För närvarande är ansvaret för fel och brister i prospekt endast uttryckligen reglerat för bolagsorganen i 29 kap. 1 § ABL. Detta mot bakgrund av en bestämmelse i prospektdirektivet som ger medlemsstaterna stor frihet att utforma prospektansvaret i enlighet med nationell civilrättslig lagstiftning. Inom svensk rätt måste därför en investerare som anser sig ha lidit skada, till följd av fel eller brister i ett prospekt, och vill utkräva ansvar från emittenten eller en medverkande aktör, välja mellan två tillvägagångssätt utan uttryckligt stöd i en författning. Dessa utgörs av att grunda en talan på en kontraktsrättslig alternativt utomobligatorisk grund, varav den förstnämnda har begränsat med stöd i gällande rätt. Rättsläget anses därför oklart avseende möjligheterna att rikta en talan mot emittenten av ett prospekt eller en medverkande aktör till dess upprättande. Avsaknaden av ett tydligt rättsläge riskerar vidare att skada förtroendet för och hämma effektiviteten på kapitalmarknaden. / This paper examines the possibilities for an investor in a prospectus of green bonds to seek compensation for false or misleading information. That includes the conditions for compensation as well as the liability of different subjects. Furthermore, the importance of advises, recommendations and frameworks from green bond market organizations are being examined. The purpose is also to discuss if an extended liability for a prospectus or a further regulation of green bonds is motivated. A green bond is a security that separates from other securities since the proceeds must be allocated to environmental friendly projects. The market for green bonds develops mainly through advises, recommendations and frameworks from green bond organizations. These are a self-regulating part of the market who complements the other regulation well. For instance, regarding how to manage the proceeds. A green bond is otherwise regulated through traditional bond regulation. The prospectus responsibility for false or misleading information is currently only explicitly regulated for persons exercising corporate functions, through the Companies Act (ABL), chapter 29 paragraph 1. This is due to a formulation in the Prospectus Directive which entails the EU member states a wide possibility to design the responsibility according to the national law system. Thus, the possibility for an investor, that has suffered a loss due to false or misleading information, to claim responsibility from the issuer or a participating subject is a choice between two courses of action without explicit support of the law. The two courses of action are through tort law or on a contractual basis, of which the latter has a limited support in the law. Consequently, the lack of an explicit and transparent state of regulation are risking to damage market efficiency and the public confidence in the capital markets.

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Den svenska marknaden för gröna obligationer har ökat explosionsartat de senaste åren. Det är därför häpnadsväckande att det ännu inte finns en vedertagen definition kring vad som menas med ordet grön och att ett regelverk för vad som krävs för att få emittera en obligation som grön saknas. Följaktligen kan investerare dra sig från att investera i gröna obligationer, då tydliga garantier saknas. Omvänt blir det svårt för fastighetsbolag att resa grönt kapital, då det är otydligt vilka krav som ställs i gengäld. Studiens syfte är därför att reda ut de frågetecken som råder på den gröna obligationsmarknaden, genom att studera de emitterande fastighetsbolagens tolkning av gröna obligationer och vad fastighetsbolagen är beredda att utlova i gengäld mot grönt kapital. Förhoppningen är att studien ska kunna öka transparensen på marknaden och skapa diskussionsmaterial för ett framtida regelverk, med frågeställningen; Hur har fastighetsbolagen utformat sina gröna obligationer på den svenska obligationsmarknaden? Studien grundas på teorier, begrepp och modeller kring fastighetsekonomi, obligationer, miljöcertifieringar och CSR. Med hjälp av en induktiv kvalitativ metod sammanställs sedan de miljöcertifieringar som utlovas i obligationsprospekten från de redan emitterade obligationerna på Nasdaq OMX Stockholm Nordics lista över hållbara obligationer. Resultatet visar på att BREEAM Very Good, Miljöbyggnad Silver och LEED Guld är de tre mest frekventa miljöcertifieringarna. Det finns dock stora skillnader mellan gröna obligationer emitterade av statliga fastighetsbolag kontra privata fastighetsbolag, där de statliga fastighetsbolagen tenderar att emittera en liten andel gröna obligationer men till höga nivåer av miljöcertifieringar, medan privata fastighetsbolag tenderar att emittera en stor andel gröna obligationer men till låga nivåer av miljöcertifieringar. Detta tyder på en inkonsekvent och icke transparent marknad som underminerar konceptet med gröna obligationer. Slutsatsen är således att en tydlig definition av vad som avses med en grön obligation krävs. / The Swedish market for green bonds has increased explosively in recent years. Therefore, it’s surprising that there’s no established definition of the word green or any regulatory framework. Consequently, investors investments are jeopardized with minimum to no guarantees of sustainability. For that reason, this study will aim to sort out the issues that exists in the green bond market by studying issued bonds and what the property companies are prepared to deliver in return for capital. The hope is that the study will be able to increase transparency in the market and create discussion material for a future regulatory framework. The research question is as follows; How do property companies design green bonds on the Swedish bond market? The study is based on theories, concepts and models associated with real estate economics, bonds, environmental certifications and CSR. By means of an inductive qualitative method, the environmental certifications stated in the bond prospectus from the bonds already issued on the Nasdaq OMX Stockholm Nordic list of sustainable bonds, have been compiled. The result shows that BREEAM Very Good, Miljöbyggnad Silver and LEED Gold are the three most common environmental certifications. However, there are large differences between green bonds issued by governmental property companies and private property companies, where governmental property companies tend to issue a small proportion of green bonds but with higher requirements of environmental certifications, while private real estate companies tend to issue a large proportion of green bonds but to lowers levels of environmental certifications. This indicates an inconsistent and non-transparent market that undermines the concept of green bonds. The conclusion is that a definite definition of what is meant by a green bonds are required.

In response to The Paris Agreement, all aspects of society are committing to transit to a low-carbon future. The real estate industry, which is responsible for a large portion of greenhouse gas emissions, plays a pivotal role in achieving this temperature goal. In the area of sustainable finance, green bonds are considered one of the most prominent financial innovations to channel funds into green projects. The green bonds market is also expanding with rapid growth. In this thesis, we investigate whether green bonds can be served as lower-cost financial instruments for real estate companies to raise capital for environmental or climate-friendly projects. We used propensity score matching to evaluate the green label effect on green bonds issued by real estate companies in the primary market at the international level. We find that green bonds issued by real estate companies have on average lower yields of around 10 basis points. The finding indicates that when issuing green bonds, real estate companies can benefit from a lower cost compared to issuing conventional bonds. We also perform analysis on subsamples divided by real estate company types. The empirical results show that the real estate investment trust can issue green bonds at a lower cost of about 11 basis points. Our findings suggest that green bonds can be used as a lower-cost financial instrument for companies in the real estate sector for decarbonizing actions. / För att leva upp till Parisavtalet förbinder sig alla sektorer i samhället att ställa om till en koldioxidsnål framtid. Fastighetsbranschen, som står för en stor del av växthusgaserna, spelar en avgörande roll för att uppnå klimatmålen. När det gäller hållbar finansiering anses gröna obligationer vara en av de mest framträdande finansiella innovationerna för att kanalisera medel till hållbara projekt. Den gröna obligationsmarknaden expanderar också i snabb takt. I denna avhandling undersöker vi om gröna obligationer kan fungera som billigare finansiella instrument för fastighetsbolag när de behöver skaffa kapital till miljö- eller klimatvänliga projekt. Vi använder metoden Propensity Score Matching för att utvärdera om det finns en premie när fastighetsbolag på internationell nivå emittera gröna obligationer på primärmarknaden. Vi finner att gröna obligationer utgivna av fastighetsbolag i genomsnitt har lägre avkastning med cirka 10 räntepunkter. Resultatet indikerar att fastighetsbolag vid emission av gröna obligationer kan dra nytta av en lägre kostnad jämfört med att emittera traditionella obligationer. Vi utför också analyser på undergrupper fördelade utifrån fastighetsbolagstyper. De empiriska resultaten visar att fastighetsinvesteringsfonder kan emittera gröna obligationer till en lägre kostnad på cirka 11 räntepunkter. Våra resultat tyder på att gröna obligationer kan användas som ett billigare finansiellt instrument för företag inom fastighetssektorn för att minska koldioxidutsläppen.

In this study, we analyze the quantile dependence for green bond returns and renewable energy stock returns with three major asset classes: corporate bonds, stocks and oil. Furthermore, we control the dependence structure for technology, uncertainties as well as lag structures and time-varying effects. We apply the cross-quantilogram developed by Han et al. (2016) that allows us to study the dependence structures between two time series in arbitrary quantiles. The results led us to three key findings: 1) The returns of thegreen bond market are tail-dependent on the returns of both long and short-term maturities for the corporate bond market but are not dependent on the stock market nor the oil market. The tail-dependence indicates that while investors may hold green bonds due to moral incentives, it is not enough during times of turbulence. Further, the dependence structures are short-lived. 2)The renewable energy market is dependent on oil returns of similar quantiles, suggesting that renewable energy substitutes oil when oil prices increase. However, renewable energy does not influence the oil market, indicating that oil is not a substitutional energy source for renewable energy driven firms. Renewable energy stocks are further highly dependent on the returns of the general stock market but are not influenced by the returns on the corporate bond market. 3) The dependence of both renewable energy and green bonds with the asset markets are time-varying. Our overall results obtained by this paper provides information that could help facilitate new investment allocations towards green investments. Further, the results may have immediate and important implications for investors. For those in the corporate bond market, adding green bonds does not add diversification benefits during turbulence. Similarly, renewable energy stock does not add diversification benefits to investors in the oil or stock market.

In this thesis the existence of the yield premium of green bonds is investigated. This paper complies with the instructions that were used in the analysis run by Zerbib(2018). The results of the fixed-effect panel regression confirm the hyphotesis on which our paper is based on. We found a nagative premium: the yield of the conventional bond is higher than the yield of the green bond. Furthermore, this paper examines how the defintion of the greenness of the bond is specified by various institutions and experts.

Green bonds are a type of bonds that are designated for investment projects that have a positive effect on the environment. Such projects could be preventing climate change by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, increasing energy-efficiency, or improving waste management. Green bonds have risen considerably in issued volume in recent years. Sweden has been one of the forerunners in this development and the interest towards these products seems to be high among individual Swedish investors. Initially, investors in green bonds have been mainly financial institutions, but there are an increasing number of mutual funds, which are aimed for retail banking customers as well. Previous research in socially responsible investing has not paid attention to green bonds from the perspective of the private, individual investor. This study is aimed to study potential individual green bond investors in Sweden. The purpose of this study was to answer the research question of who the typical Swedish green bond investors are, based on demographic characters. As research sub-questions, the thesis also answered questions regarding perceived risk and return on green bonds, and the effect of environmental attitude and behaviour on potential green bond investments. The study was carried out as an Internet survey by means of a questionnaire directed to Swedish investors. In total, 66 respondents answered the survey, which was analysed by bivariate and multivariate methods. Among the demographic factors, two were found statistically significant, age, and parenthood. In this sample younger investors (age less than 39), were found to prefer investing in green bonds, compared to older investors. Secondly, the fact of being a non-parent turned out to be a distinctive feature of current and potential investors in green bonds. The results regarding the first research sub-question, showed that the individual investors do not perceive green bonds to be more or less risky or give more or less return than comparable conventional bonds. The second research sub-question regarding environmental attitude and behaviour, showed a significant difference between those who showed a strong pro-environmental behaviour, as opposed to those who showed a weaker pro-environmental behaviour. The conclusion about the influence of environmental attitudes was that it did not have an effect on potential green bond investments.

This study addresses the green bond market, a young and upcoming market that has received increasing attention in recent years. Academic literature in the field is limited, therefore theaim of this study is to identify investors’ main barriers and motives behind green bondinvestments. In order to examine Swedish fund companies’ requirements to invest in greenbonds, questionnaire responses were linked to interviews. The overall result shows the importance of financial incentives in investment decisions. In terms of market barriers, the low return of green bonds was the main reason that investments were restrained. It has been stated that green bonds are issued at a premium due to an additional reporting related administrative cost for the issuers. Another defined limit was the concern for issuers not fulfilling their 'green' obligation. The main motive behind green bond investments was to invest in a sustainable environment followed by the possibility to gain a combined financial and environmental return. In addition to the financial attributes, investors find a utility function in the green bonds that account for the premium price that these investors seem to accept. Furthermore, social norms are shown to influence the investment decision to a lesser extent.