In this paper, I analyze the impact of Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) on female empowerment in India. In defining female empowerment, I consider the three dimensions of agency: social autonomy, economic autonomy, and mobility. Using nationally-representative data of 2012 from the Indian Human Development Survey (IHDS), I find that these information communication technologies, measured by ownership and use, have positive and significant impacts on female agency and decision-making abilities. I extend my analysis to two types of media: computers and mobile phones. These results persist even after accounting for the effects of education, income, and age of women.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de NÃvel Superior / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / O estudo teve como objetivo construir um diagnÃstico de enfermagem voltado para o crescimento e desenvolvimento infantil na categoria promoÃÃo da saÃde. Estudo metodolÃgico, desenvolvido em trÃs etapas de validaÃÃo de diagnÃsticos de enfermagem, conforme preconizado por Hoskins (1989): anÃlise de conceito, validaÃÃo por especialistas e validaÃÃo clÃnica. Para anÃlise de conceito, utilizaram-se como referÃncias o modelo de anÃlise de conceito proposto por Rodgers (2000) e a revisÃo integrativa da literatura proposta por Mendes, Silveira e GalvÃo (2008). Para seleÃÃo das produÃÃes, buscaram-se cinco bases de dados: Scopus, Pubmed, Cinahl, Lilacs e Cochrane, com os descritores: crescimento e desenvolvimento; lactente; prÃ-escolar; e as suas sinonÃmias nas lÃnguas inglesa e espanhola. A anÃlise de conceito foi subsidiada por 83 estudos. Com relaÃÃo aos conceitos dos fenÃmenos crescimento e desenvolvimento, ainda hà muitas controvÃrsias quanto ao emprego deles, tendo em vista que a literatura traz os fenÃmenos dissociados ou agregados. O crescimento abrange aspectos fisiolÃgicos relacionados Ãs alteraÃÃes no tamanho e na forma, remetendo Ãs medidas corporais. O desenvolvimento à definido como um fenÃmeno amplo e complexo, integrando os domÃnios: mental, cognitivo, comportamental, perceptivo, motor, fÃsico. O levantamento da literatura contribuiu para a elaboraÃÃo de 15 caracterÃsticas definidoras distribuÃdas nos domÃnios: seis no fÃsico, seis no cognitivo e trÃs no psicossocial. A etapa de validaÃÃo com especialistas compreendeu a apreciaÃÃo do instrumento constituÃdo por duas partes: 1Â) caracterizaÃÃo dos especialistas e 2Â) proposta diagnÃstica: tÃtulo, definiÃÃo, domÃnio 13, caracterÃsticas definidoras com suas definiÃÃes conceituais e operacionais (referÃncias empÃricas) por 22 especialistas na Ãrea da saÃde da crianÃa, predominantemente do sexo feminino (94,4%), doutores (55,6%), concentrados na RegiÃo Nordeste (61,1%), onde exerceram suas atividades no Ãltimo ano como docentes de InstituiÃÃes de Ensino Superior (IES) (83,3%). O tempo de formaÃÃo dos especialistas foi em mÃdia de 13,1 anos (Â8,5). Quanto à estrutura do diagnÃstico, a maioria deles apontou o tÃtulo denominado DisposiÃÃo para desenvolvimento infantil melhorado (61,1%) como o mais adequado para o diagnÃstico de enfermagem em construÃÃo. Todos os especialistas concordaram que o diagnÃstico proposto deve estar incluÃdo no domÃnio 13 â crescimento/desenvolvimento (100%), e na classe que distribui os fenÃmenos em: 1- crescimento e 2- desenvolvimento (55,6%). A maioria dos especialistas optou pelo conceito 1 (55,6%). Parte dos especialistas sugeriu o acrÃscimo no instrumento de algumas peculiaridades da fase do lactente referentes Ãs caracterÃsticas definidoras. A validaÃÃo clÃnica foi realizada com 45 lactentes avaliados durante a consulta de puericultura em um Centro de SaÃde da FamÃlia. A maioria deles do sexo masculino (55,6%). Metade dos lactentes apresentou idade de 5 meses, com mÃes/responsÃveis com idade mÃdia de 24 anos. As caracterÃsticas definidoras obtiveram valores de sensibilidade elevados (acima de 90%), valores preditivos positivos acima de 65%, valores preditivos negativos acima de 66%, entretanto, valores baixos de especificidade (menores que 32%). Portanto, sÃo bons indicadores preditivos da ocorrÃncia do diagnÃstico de enfermagem proposto. Assim, seis caracterÃsticas definidoras, conforme observado no estudo, sÃo apropriadas para compor o diagnÃstico de enfermagem DisposiÃÃo para o crescimento e desenvolvimento do lactente melhorado. / The study aimed to construct a nursing diagnosis child growth and development in the health promotion category. Study methodology, developed in three stages of validation of nursing diagnoses, as recommended by Hoskins (1989): The concept analysis, expert validation and clinical validation. To concept analysis was used as the reference model concept analysis proposed by Rodgers (2000) and integrative literature proposed by Mendes, Silveira and GalvÃo (2008). For selection of productions, were searched five databases: Scopus, Pubmed, Cinahl, Lilacs and Cochrane with descriptors: growth and development, infant, preschool and their synonyms in English and Spanish. The concept analysis was supported by 83 studies. Regarding the concepts of growth and development phenomena, there is still much controversy regarding the use of them in order that literature brings phenomena dissociated or aggregated. The growth covers physiological aspects related to changes in size and shape, referring to body measurements. Development is defined as a broad and complex phenomenon, integrating areas: mental, cognitive, behavioral, perceptual, motor, physical. The literature has contributed to the development of fifteen defining characteristics in distributed domains: six in the physical, cognitive and six in three in psychosocial. The validation step with experts understood the appreciation of the instrument consists of two parts: 1st) characterization of specialists and 2nd) diagnostic proposal: title, setting, area 13, defining characteristics with their conceptual definitions and operational (empirical references) by 22 experts in area of child health, predominantly female (94.4%), doctors (55.6%), concentrated in the Northeast (61.1%), which exercised its activities in the past year as teachers in educational institutions (HEI) (83.3%). The time specialist training was on average 13.1 years ( 8.5). As for the structure of diagnosis, most of them pointed out that the title referred to improved child development (61.1%) as most appropriate for the nursing diagnosis under construction. All experts agreed that the diagnosis should be included in the proposed area 13 growth / development (100%), and class that distributes phenomena: 1 - and 2 growth - development (55.6%). Most experts chose the concept 1 (55.6%). Part of experts suggested adding the instrument of some peculiarities of the infant phase regarding defining characteristics. The clinical validation was performed with 45 infants assessed during the consultation childcare in a Family Health Center. The majority were male (55.6%). Half of the infants showed age of 5 months, with mothers / guardians with an average age of 24 years. The defining characteristics obtained high sensitivity (above 90%), positive predictive values above 65%, negative predictive values above 66%, however, low levels of specificity (less than 32%). Therefore, they are good indicators predictive of the occurrence of the proposed nursing diagnosis. Thus, six defining characteristics, as noted in the study, are suitable for composing the nursing diagnosis Provision for growth and development of infants improved.

In the early literature, the empirical evidence showed that the rate of economic convergence is close to 2%. This paper reexamined the convergence pattern of U.S. counties from 1959-2015 and explored the potential impact of the net migration rate and population density on the rate of convergence. By investigating both the ordinary least square and quantile regression estimates, this paper found out the convergence pattern for the latter economic development period differed from that in the early period. This change is mainly featured by a close to zero convergence rate after 1979. Furthermore, for counties starting off at a relatively low GDP per capita level, no significant economic convergence was observed during the period 1979-2005. Net migration rate didn’t show to have a significant impact on the rate of convergence. Population density has a double effect on the economic growth and can partly account for the change in the rate of convergence in the latter economic development period.

Stunting is widespread among brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis populations in high alpine lakes in the eastern Sierra Nevada, California. Due to their small size and poor condition, stunted brook trout are undesirable as sport fish. In the same area, a few lakes contain large brook trout. Population density was the primary difference between lakes with different sized fish. I hypothesized that in lakes with large fish the food ration per individual was sufficient and that in lakes with stunted fish the food ration was the limiting factor. I carried out removal experiments on eight brook trout populations to test the hypothesis (1) that fish size is inversely related to population density, and by that evaluate density reduction as a means of improving growth in stunted brook trout. I considered seven additional hypotheses regarding the relationships between brook trout population density and growth, fecundity, and recruitment: (2) growth response is proportional to density reduction; (3) growth response is inversely proportional to pre-reduction density; (4) growth responses of juvenile and senescent fish are less affected by density reductions than mature, reproductively active fish; (5) growth response to density reduction is inversely proportional to lake elevation; (6) fish size is proportional to angling pressure; (7) fecundity response is proportional to the reduction in population density; and (8) recruitment response is inversely related to density. I used gillnets to simultaneously remove part of the population and estimate population size through catch depletion methods that allow variable catchability. Catchability varied with lake size and with abundance, increasing as population abundance declined. Increased catchability can be explained by behavioral responses. I measured and aged 16000+ brook trout from 71 lakes, 9800+ from the eight experimental lakes. I validated annual structures on otoliths using a fluorochrome mark. For the experimental lakes, I back-calculated previous population sizes using estimates of number at age in 1989, catch at age in 1987-1988, and survival rates at age estimated from catch data collected in 1987-1989. I converted population estimates into density estimates of fish and biomass per lake surface area and volume. I tested hypothesis 1 by using survey data from 61 populations and by experimentally manipulating density in eight populations. The survey data suggested that size differences between populations of brook trout are a function of population density. Results from the eight removal experiments showed that fish size was inversely related to population density, though the increases in fish size were minor. The relationship between change in length and weight was roughly proportional to the change in density (hypothesis 2). Hypothesis 3 suggested differences in the severity of stunting in alpine lakes, and that the growth response of severely stunted populations would be more pronounced than the response of less stunted fish in lower density populations. The result was opposite; the growth response in lower density populations was greater than the response in higher density populations, suggesting that the growth response may have been proportional to the pre-reduction density. Hypothesis 4 suggested that the growth response for juvenile brook trout would be less than that for the pre-senescent adult population. The results refuted the juvenile portion of hypothesis 4: response for juveniles was greater than the response of the adults, perhaps because of greater recuperative abilities in young fish. The data supported the hypothesis that the growth response would be diminished in older fish. There was no relationship between elevation and growth response (hypothesis 5). Sport fishing had little effect on the growth of brook trout populations (hypothesis 6). Heavily fished populations were also stunted. Stunted brook trout had fecundities similar to non-stunted brook trout of the same size (hypothesis 7). Individual fecundity did increase in response to density reduction, but no more than would be expected from the increase in size. In several populations mean absolute fecundity decreased with age. Ovary weight was maintained by an apparent increase in mean egg size in older fish. The recruitment response varied between lakes (hypothesis 8). Recruitment did increase, likely in response to reduced cannibalism or competition, but I also found recruitment failure at the highest levels of density reduction. Strong cohorts were produced by increased juvenile survival rather than increased population fecundity, since population fecundity had decreased due to removal of most of the adult population. In one lake with almost no recruitment, densities remained low and fish weight doubled. For density reduction to be an effective means of increasing fish size, recruitment must be inhibited. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

Senescence, the progressive loss of growth potential culminating in death, is common among Kauaian strains of Neurospora intermedia. Senescence is initiated by the insertion of kalilo DNA into the mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondrial DNA molecules carrying the insert accumulate and death occurs when the insert is equimolar with the mitochondrial DNA. The inserted form of kalilo DNA is referred to as mtlS-kalDNA. Studies on the somatic transmission of mtlS-kalDNA in ascospore series have revealed that kalilo DNA is capable of assuming new locations within the mitochondrial DNA. It is proposed that these novel insertions originate from intramitochondrial movement and an autonomous form of kalilo DNA, mtFF-kalDNA, is predicted to be an intermediate in movement. Novel insertion of kalilo DNA appears to depend on the form of mtlS-kalDNA transmitted sexually. If a mutagenic insert is transmitted, senescence is initiated at the onset of vegetative growth of the ascospores and no novel insertions are detected. The lifespans of these ascospores are quite short, death occurring in 10 subcultures or less. Transmission of a nonmutagenic insert delays the onset of senescence until either a novel insertion or a rearrangement of the transmitted insert occurs. The lifespans of these ascospores usually exceed 10 subcultures and are variable. Information obtained from tetrad analysis has revealed that novel insertion of kalilo DNA may also be under the influence of the host genome. A senescent Kauaian strain was identified which shows some but not all characteristics of kalilo senescence. In this strain and its derivatives, the behaviour of mtlS-kalDNA is erratic and in, some cultures the characteristic mitochondrial biochemical deficiencies, normally accompanying kalilo senescence, are not observed. It is suspected that kalDNA is not responsible for senescence in this strain and its derivatives but rather some other unknown factor is affecting the normal growth patterns of these cultures. Kauaian strains were surveyed for the presence of dsRNA to determine whether kalDNA has a viral origin. Only one senescent strain contains detectable amounts of dsRNA which was not homologous with a kalDNA probe. The survey identified six nonKauaian strains which contain dsRNA and seven dsRNA species were delineated. Although the presence of dsRNA is not relevant to kalilo senescence, analysis of dsRNA in a genetically-well defined organism like Neurospora may give insight into the significance of dsRNA in fungi in general. / Medicine, Faculty of / Medical Genetics, Department of / Graduate

This thesis represents a contribution to the literature on the relationship between decentralisation, corruption, and economic growth. This relationship is analysed both theoretically and empirically. The first chapter investigates one of the channels through which decentralisation can potentially affect corruption and economic growth. The analysis uses a dynamic general equilibrium model to gain further insights into the effects of decentralisation on the structure of corruption. The results suggest that decentralisation, by bringing the people closer to government, can enable corrupt local government officials to internalise the effects of their behaviour. It thereby generates an incentive for officials to moderate their bribe demands. This has positive effects for investment and economic growth. The second chapter examines a potential trade-off that may occur when countries embark on a program of decentralisation. On the one hand decentralisation may improve the information problems that plague overly centralised governments, but at the same time it can potentially lead to a loss of control as discretionary power is granted to local officials without implementing the required accountability mechanisms. The results of the analysis suggest that while decentralisation can potentially reduce corruption an aid economic performance in the long run, it may inevitable lead to increased corruption in the short-run. A key idea is that extra care must be taken to introducing accountability structures at the local level, but that these will likely take time before becoming effective, so that in the near term corruption may increase. In the third chapter the relationship between decentralisation, corruption and economic growth is analysed empirically, using panel data techniques. While previous studies have looked at the relationship between decentralisation and corruption, or between decentralisation and growth, or between corruption and growth, few have looked at the joint relationship between the three. Moreover, previous studies often suffer from endogeneity problems. To overcome this, the Generalised Method of Moments technique is employed; an approach that has not been used on this topic before. It is shown that, while there is evidence that corruption hampers economic growth, the effects of decentralisation are ambiguous. The chapter highlights the inherent difficulties in analysing the effects of decentralisation, which is a complex and multifaceted concept that is impossible to fully capture in the data. This suggests that empirical studies will inevitably be limited in their ability to fully assess a relationship as nuanced as this. The implication is that further investigation at the theoretical level is required. Overall, the thesis provides support for the idea that decentralisation can potentially lead to beneficial outcomes, both in terms so of combating corruption and in wider economic terms. However, it also suggest that care must be taken when implementing reforms as these beneficial outcomes a far from certain.

This study was designed to examine the hypothesis that the amount of amniotic fluid present during gestation is critical to normal lung growth and maturation. On day 16 of gestation the amniotic sacs of the right or left uterine horns of timed pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were punctured with a 20 gauge needle. The fetuses of the opposite horn served as controls. On day 21 of gestation (one day prior to natural delivery) the fetuses were delivered by Cesarean section. An unbalanced, mixed model analysis of variance was performed on the data collected from each fetus. Probability values of less than 0.05 between control and experimental animals were considered significant. Amniotic sac puncture resulted in a significant loss of amniotic fluid as indicated by reduced amniotic fluid volume on day 21. Experimental body weight was significantly reduced indicating fetal growth retardation. Lung growth was also retarded as indicated by significantly reduced lung weight to body weight ratios and lung volume to body weight ratios following amniotic sac puncture. There was a reduction in the amount of fluid present within the experimental lungs. There appeared to be no significant effect on the structural units of the lung as indicated by no significant difference between control and experimental fetal lungs in terms of cell number, cell size, total protein to body weight ratio, maturation of type II cells, volume fraction of saccular air, saccular wall, conducting air and nonparenchyma, airspace size, saccular surface area to body weight ratio and surface to volume ratio. Thus, loss of amniotic fluid significantly affected lung growth, more than it affected overall body growth, without having an effect on lung maturation. / Medicine, Faculty of / Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Department of / Graduate

Genetic and non-genetic effects of maternal; size were investigated in four introduced populations of Cinnabar moth Tyria jacobaeae (L.) (Arctiidae). Offspring of different female moths were reared to the pupal stage under greenhouse conditions with an overabundance of food. Mean offspring-maternal size correlations were highest for second generation laboratory offspring using pupal weight as the size criterion, maximum egg weight was not related to female size, although average egg weight tended to decrease, and fecundity increase with female wing length. Egg weight was not related to final pupal weight. Egg weight decreased over the oviposition period, but pupae reared from later batches were not consistently of lower weight when compared with pupae reared from batches laid on tie first day of oviposition. Under a less favorable temperature regime, hatching, success was reduced in later batches. It was concluded that maternal effects (genetic and non-genetic) on offspring size are unimportant under normal field conditions in comparison to the effects exerted by larval crowding and food availability. However under very poor conditions, selective mortality may be imposed on later batches, or on the lighter eggs of large moths. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) from two wild stocks native to British Columbia, and a non-native domestic strain were reared under varying conditions to examine effects of growth rate and body size, genetic stock, and photoperiod on the incidence and timing of testis development. The ratio of gonad weight to body weight (Gonadosomatic index) was found to be useful for separating mature and immature male fish and for determining the onset of gonadal development. In Premier lake fish testis development began one year before the expected date of spawning. At this time, signs of maturation were evident primarily among males that reached a body weight of between ten and twenty grams, whereas most of the fish smaller than this "critical" size remained immature (i.e. no testis developmment). Apparently, this critical size must be reached by a certain time of the year. Thus, a time 'window' exists wherein fish achieving a certain size begin preparation for spawning the following year. Altering photoperiod regime during the time window had no effect on the incidence of sexual precociousness, but did delay spermatogenesis by an undetermined length of time. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

A deterministic simulation model is used to explore the relationship between juvenile pink, chum and coho salmon growth and size-related survival in the Fraser River estuary. Parameters most sensitive to change are identified and the results related to proposals for enhancement. These results suggest that increasing the initial size of enhancement pink and chum fry, relative to the size of wild fry, prior to seaward migration and releasing them early in the spring may increase their chances of survival. If increasing total (enhancement plus wild) fry density decreases fry growth rate, the presence of enhancement fry in the estuary could reduce the survival chances of wild fry. The decrease in wild stock survival may not be apparent from estimates of adult return for many years due to errors in measurement and to the effect on survival of environmental variability. The model can be used to suggest and evaluate enhancement proposals. Areas needing further research are also indicated. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate