Today, two phenomena are growing; the constant increase in xenophobic hate crimes and the rampant presence of political and media representatives engaged in right-wing populist rhetoric aimed at defending the people from all threats. The question of how right-wing populist rhetoric influences the occurrence of these violent acts has only been addressed indirectly and partially in the academic world. This thesis tries to fill this gap, by proposing the following argument: right-wing populist rhetoric, through a process of continuous growth and affirmation, gradually creates an enemy who is ethnically “different” from the “native” people, leading to a social reaction and therefore to a consequent increase in xenophobic hate crimes. In order to verify this claim, an analysis of two periods of Italian history is conducted by means of Process Tracing. A primary case (1935-1939), focused on the Fascist Party and Mussolini with respect to two ethnic targets: Ethiopians and Jews. A secondary case (2013-2016), focused on the Lega Nord party and Salvini with respect to immigrants. The empirical results achieved provide good general support and suggest the need for further research, in order for countermeasures to be enacted by policymakers to avoid history repeating itself.

Hate crime is an umbrella concept where the motive is to violate an individual or group based on their ethnicity, skin color, religious beliefs, sexual orientation, or gender identity or expression. This study examined police reports from the year 2018, marked as hate crimes. The sample consisted of 8 cases of violent crimes containing, a completed interrogation, an identifiable hate motive and where the offense was made by either a majority offender on minority victim or a minority offender on minority victim. The study aimed to examine whether the police use stereotypes to enable quick and easy identification of an underlying motive. Athematic analysis was used to examine if stereotypes were being utilized and if any differences occurred between the handling of cases of majority-on-minority versus minority-on-minority. Two theoretical frameworks were used to understand the mechanism behind the use of stereotypes, and which victims who are assigned most sympathy from society and can thereby be defined as ideal victims of hate crime. The results indicated that the hate motive was expressed more explicitly in cases where the offender belonged to a majority group. These cases also contained more stereotypical traits, which could make it easier for law enforcement to recognize the hate motive. In the dominant part of the examined cases, both stereotypical and non-stereotypical traits were visible, indicating that law enforcement partly forgoes these stereotypes when identifying the hate motive. More training would be beneficial to stress the importance of a more detailed description of the hate motive in the report's criminal text - and how it determines the success of the investigation. / Hatbrott är ett paraplybegrepp och innebär brott där motivet är att kränka en individ eller grupp på grund av deras etniska ursprung, hudfärg, trosbekännelse, sexuella läggning eller könsöverskridande identitet eller uttryck. Studien undersökte brottsrapporter från polisens register år 2018 som blivit markerade som hatbrott. Urvalet bestod av 8 misshandelsfall som innehöll förhör, ett identifierbart hatmotiv och där förbrytelsen var utförd av antingen en majoritetsförövare på ett minoritetsoffer eller en minoritetsförövare på ett minoritetsoffer. Syftet med studien var att undersöka om polisen använder stereotyper för att snabbt och lätt komma fram till rätt underliggande motiv. En tematisk analys användes för att undersöka om stereotyper användes, samt om det förekom skillnader mellan hanteringen av fall från majoritet-på-minoritetsgruppen och minoritet-på-minoritets gruppen. Två teoretiska ramverk användes för att förstå mekanismen bakom användningen av stereotyper samt vilka offer som kan anses definieras som ideala hatbrottsoffer. Resultaten indikerade att hatmotivet blev presenterat mer explicit i de rapporter där förövaren tillhörde en majoritetsgrupp. Dessa fall innehöll även fler stereotypiska drag, vilket kan innebära att polisen har lättare för att känna igen hatmotiven. I majoriteten av de undersökta fallen framkom det att de flesta innehöll både stereotypiska och icke stereotypiska drag, vilket visar att polisen faktiskt frångår stereotyperna till viss del i processen att identifiera motivet. Därtill skulle mer utbildning vara mer fördelaktigt för att betona vikten av en mer detaljerad beskrivning av hatmotivet i brottsrapportens fritext - och hur detta avgör undersökningsprocessens framgång.

Previous literature, although helpful in demonstrating the insidious nature and effects of Islamophobia on Muslims, does not underscore the varying forms and intensities of Islamophobia that a diverse range of Muslims in the West face and the powerful ways in which race and socio-economic class factor into their experiences, coping mechanisms, and stigma responses. This dissertation contributes to the literature on Muslims in The West in three ways: (1) offering a qualitative approach to understanding the ways in which Islamophobia is perpetuated through media discourse and coinciding political legislation, and is experienced differently by a diverse range of Muslims in Canada, (2) adding the concepts of spiritual marginalization, spiritual homelessness, and social status optimization to the analytic vocabulary on integration and articulating their relationship with identity, and (3) making a connection between race and social class and the response to Islamophobia and articulating their relationship with human agency. In chapter one, I provide an in-depth literature review on Islamophobia in the West. In chapter two, I present the results of a discourse analysis study that highlights the structural dimensions of Islamophobia through media representations and framing of incidences involving Muslim vs. non-Muslim perpetrators of violence. In chapter three, I present the results of a study that showcases group level experiences of racism amongst a relatively powerless group of Muslim refugee youth in Hamilton Ontario and St. John’s Newfoundland and Labrador. In chapter four, I provide a contrasting response to stigma by reporting on the experiences and mobilization of a socioeconomically privileged group of first, second and third generation Muslims in Edmonton. Finally, I summarize the conceptual findings of each paper, review and discuss the general theoretical and conceptual contributions of the dissertation to existing literature, and provide suggestions on future directions for studying Islamophobia and Muslim integration in The West. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / This dissertation analyses the varying forms and intensities of Islamophobia that a diverse range of Muslims in Canada face and the powerful ways in which race and socio-economic class factor into their experiences, coping mechanisms, and stigma responses. The thesis explores three themes: 1) how Islamophobia may be structurally maintained and propagated through media discourse and coinciding political legislation, 2) how Islamophobia and anti-Muslim hate is experienced differently by different groups of Muslims in Canada, and (3) how there may be a connection between race and social class in individual responses to Islamophobia. By adding the concepts of spiritual marginalization, spiritual homelessness, and social status optimization to the analytic vocabulary, this work is a unique contribution to existing literature, and to our understanding of the differing lived experiences of being Muslim in the West and the varying ways in which Islamophobia informs the day to day lives of Muslim Canadians.

Abstracts in English, Afrikaans and Southern Sotho / The prevalence of hate victimisation in South Africa remains unknown, as does its full impact. Anecdotal evidence, borne out by recent research findings, suggests hate-based attacks on non-nationals have increased in recent years, distinctly reflecting a picture of heightened vulnerability. For several reasons, the severity of such victimisation, and their physical and psychological impact, go mostly unseen. Hate-motivated incidents, such as hate speech and intentional unfair discrimination, are possible precursors to additional criminal victimisation. Records of such incidents can be helpful to demonstrate both a context of harassment and evidence of escalating patterns of violence. Worldwide, under-reporting of hate victimisation is a longstanding concern and requires an urgent solution. In South Africa, under-reporting has contributed to the nonrecognition of hate crime as a separate crime category. Towards aiding in finding a solution, this study explored the psychological barriers to reporting xenophobic victimisation to relevant authorities. The study, furthermore, explored with a group of victims who experienced xenophobia whether they reported victimisation, the reasons for reporting and under-reporting, and their thoughts and opinions on the workability of a third-party reporting mechanism. Non-probability sampling, specifically applying convenience and purposive sampling was used to obtain 19 participants for the four semi-structured focus groups. While all participants reported being victimised because of their nationality, the study found that multiple psychological barriers prevent such victims of xenophobia from reporting victimisation to authorities. Many of the participants do not believe in the workability of third-party reporting mechanisms. / Dit is onbekend hoe algemeen viktimisering op grond van haat in Suid-Afrika voorkom, en daarom ook wat die volle impak daarvan is. Onlangse navorsingsresultate dui egter daarop dat aanvalle op nielandsburgers wat uit haat voortspruit, toegeneem het die afgelope paar jaar, wat hulle groter kwesbaarheid duidelik weerspieël. Die intensiteit van hierdie viktimisering, asook die fisieke en sielkundige impak daarvan word in die meeste gevalle om verskeie redes ook nie bekendgemaak nie. Voorvalle wat uit haat voortspruit, soos haatspraak en doelbewuste onregverdige diskriminasie, is moontlik voorlopers van verdere kriminele viktimisering. Die optekening van sulke gevalle kan help om bewys te lewer van die teisteringskonteks, sowel as van patrone van toenemende misdaad. Die gebrekkige aanmelding van viktimisering op grond van haat is wêreldwyd lank reeds ’n probleem, en een waarvoor daar dringend ’n oplossing gevind moet word. In Suid-Afrika het gebrekkige aanmelding daartoe bygedra dat haatmisdaad nie as ’n aparte misdaadkategorie erken word nie. Ten einde ’n oplossing te help vind, het die navorser vir die doeleindes van hierdie studie die sielkundige faktore ondersoek wat verhoed dat xenofobiese viktimisering by die betrokke owerhede aangemeld word. Die studie bevat ook die terugvoer van ’n groep slagoffers van xenofobie oor hulle aanmelding van die viktimisering al dan nie, die redes waarom hulle dit aangemeld het of nie aangemeld het nie, en hulle gedagtes en menings oor hoe lewensvatbaar ’n stelsel vir derdeparty-aanmelding is. Niewaarskynlikheid-steekproefneming, en spesifiek doelbewuste en gemaksteekproefneming is gebruik om 19 deelnemers vir die vier semigestruktureerde fokusgroepe te vind. Alhoewel al die deelnemers bevestig het dat hulle geviktimiseer is op grond van hulle nasionaliteit, het die navorser met hierdie studie bevind dat verskeie sielkundige faktore die slagoffers van xenofobie verhoed om die viktimisering by die owerhede aan te meld. Talle van die deelnemers glo nie dat stelsels vir derdeparty-aanmelding ’n werkbare oplossing is nie. / Hore na tshwaro e mpe ka lebaka la lehloyo e atile hakae Afrika Borwa ho ntse ho sa tsejwe, le ditlamorao tsa yona ha di tsejwe. Bopaki bo sa netefatswang, bo hlaheletseng dipatlisisong tsa morao tjena, bo bontsha hore ditlhaselo tse etswang ho batho ba tswang dinaheng tse ding di eketsehile morao tjena, e leng se bontshang hore ba kotsing le ho feta. Ho na le mabaka a mmalwa a etsang hore ho pharalla ha tshwaro e mpe jwalo, ho hlokofatswa mmeleng le maikutlong ho se ke ha bonahala. Diketso tse hlohleletswang ke lehloyo, tse kang dipuo tse nang le lehloyo le kgethollo e etswang ka boomo, e ba selelekela sa diketso tsa bonokwane tsa tshwaro e mpe. Ho tlalehwa ho diketso tseo ho ka thusa ho bontsha maemo a lebisang tshwarong e mpe mme ha fana ka bopaki ba hore diketso tse mabifi di ntse di eketseha. Lefatsheng ka bophara, taba ya ho se tlalehwe ha tshwaro e mpe e hlohleletswang ke lehloyo haesale e le qaka mme ho hlokahala tharollo ka potlako. Afrika Borwa, ho se tlalehwe hona ho entse hore diketso tsa bonokwane tse hlohleletswang ke lehloyo di se ke tsa nkwa e le diketso tse ikemetseng tsa bonokwane. Ho thusa ho fumana tharollo, phuputso ena e lekola mathata a maikutlo a sitisang matswantle ho tlaleha tshwaro e mpe ho ba boholong ba ikarabellang. Ho feta moo, phuputso ena e lekola matswantle ao e leng mahlatsipa a tshwaro e mpe hore na a ile a e tlaleha, mabaka a entseng hore a e tlalehe, a se ke a tlaleha le hore na a nahanang ka ho sebediswa ha mokena-dipakeng. Ho kgethilwe bankakarolo ba 19 ka hloko e le sampole, ba kgethwa ka sepheo le morero o tobileng hore ba be dihlopheng tse nne tse sa hlophiswang ka ho feletseng. Le hoja bankakarolo bohle ba tlalehile hore ba tshwerwe hampe ka lebaka la botjhaba ba bona, phuputso e fumana hore ho na le mathata a mmalwa a maikutlo a thibelang mahlatsipa a tshwaro e mpe ya matswantle ho tlalehela ba boholong. Bankakarolo ba bangata ha ba dumele hore ho tlalehela mokena-dipakeng ho tla thusa. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

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Text in English / While intergenerational transmission of trauma has been widely studied, there is a paucity of literature on intergenerational humiliation. Furthermore, humiliation is regarded as a significant feature of transgenerational transmission of trauma and revenge production. Therefore, the present study aimed to contribute to addressing this paucity and to explore and understand intergenerational humiliation as experienced by 20 children and grandchildren of victims of apartheid-era gross human rights violations. Conceptually, historical trauma theory framed the study. A hermeneutic phenomenological methodology was used to achieve the aims. Through purposive-criterion sampling, data was collected and analysed using interpretive phenomenological analysis. Results show that the consequences of intergenerational humiliation are varied as feelings of hurt and loss perpetuate through the generations. Although positive influences counter these feelings within a generation, they remain alive in memories. This has implications on ethnic and racial inter-group relations as transitional societies such as South Africa seek social cohesion. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology (Research Consultation))