With the introduction of outcomes-based education (OBE) in South Africa the role of teachers and learners in the teaching and learning process had to change. Teachers had to adopt a facilitation role and learners had to focus on active learning and the mastering of outcomes. With the focus of OBE on outcomes, teachers in the teachinglearning process are continuously pressurised not only to focus on the teaching of theoretical subject matter, but also the development of higher-order cognitive skills (HOCS). Since 2006 the development of learners' HOCS in South African Schools have been emphasized in the Further Education and Training Phase (grades 10-12) through the National Curriculum Statements. Teachers in Business Studies (the new subject that replaced Business Economics as secondary school subject in 2006) have doubts in their ability to develop learners' HOCS because they doubt their own ability to demonstrate HOCS. This study indicates that the teacher training of Business Studies students should focus on the development of their HOCS, because they won't be able to develop their learners' HOCS if they can't demonstrate it themselves. The purpose of this study was to develop a teaching model for the development of education students in Business Studies' HOCS. Lecturers can use the teaching model during teacher training, to develop education students' knowledge of HOeS in Business studies, their ability to demonstrate HOCS and their critical and creative thinking skills. This study was approached from a pragmatic research paradigm. A literature study was conducted to motivate the rationale for the development of education students' HOCS, to investigate the meaning of HOCS and to determine the way in which HOCS can be learned, taught and assessed. The proposed teaching model that was developed, is based on the literature study. From the literature study a workable definition of HOCS was developed for the aim of this study. The literature study also showed that HOCS can best be learned and taught in a social constructivist learning environment, where lecturers enable students to construct their own knowledge and skills, with a combination of inductive teaching, cooperative learning and problem/activity based learning. During the empirical component of this study the teaching model for development of HOCS was applied to education students in Business Studies. Data was gathered over a period of four months by means of a mixed methods research design. This research design acted as a purposeful research framework wherein quantitative and qualitative methods were used to solve the research problem. Findings from the results of the empirical study indicated the extent to which the teaching model led to the development of the education students' HOCS, the experience of the education students and the way in which the model was executed. The contribution of this research is viewed as a clarification of the concept HOCS, the rationale for the development of HOCS and the proposed teaching model. / Thesis (PhD (Education))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010

Chemistry is often claimed to be difficult, irrelevant, and uninteresting to school students. Even students who enjoy doing science often have problems seeing themselves as being scientists. This thesis explores and challenges the negative perception of chemistry by investigating upper secondary students’ views on the subject. Based on students’ ideas for improving chemistry education to make the subject more interesting and meaningful, new learning approaches rooted in context-based learning (CBL) are presented. CBL approaches are applied in several countries to enhance interest, de-emphasise rote learning, and improve students’ higher order thinking. Students’ views on upper secondary school chemistry classes in combination with their problem- solving strategies and application of chemistry content knowledge when solving context-based chemistry tasks were investigated using a mixed methods approach. Questionnaire responses, written solutions to chemistry problems, classroom observations, and think-aloud interviews with upper secondary students at the Natural Science Programme and with experts working on context- based chemistry tasks were analysed to obtain a general overview and explore specific issues in detail. Several students were identified who had positive feelings about chemistry, found it interesting, and chose to continue with it beyond the compulsory level, mainly with the aim of future university studies or simply because they enjoyed it. Their suggestions for improving school chemistry by connecting it to everyday life prompted an exploration of CBL approaches. Studies on the cognitive learning outcomes arising from the students’ work on context-based tasks revealed that school chemistry heavily emphasises the recall of memorised facts. However, there is evidence of higher order thinking when students’ problem-solving processes are scaffolded using hints based on the Model of Hierarchical Complexity in Chemistry (MHC-C). In addition, the contextualisation of problems is identified as something that supports learning rather than distracting students. To conclude, the students in this thesis are interested in chemistry and enjoy chemistry education, and their motives for choosing to study chemistry at the post-compulsory level are related to their aspirations; students’ identity formation is important for their choices. Because students are accustomed to recalling facts and solving chemistry problems that have “one single correct answer”, they find more open problems that demand higher order thinking (e.g. knowledge transfer) unfamiliar and complex, suggesting that such processes should be practiced more often in school chemistry. / Kemi är ett skolämne som generellt anses vara både svårt, irrelevant och ointressant för ungdomar. Trots att det ändå finns ungdomar som uppskattar naturvetenskap i allmänhet och kemi i synnerhet, har de ofta problem att se sig själva som naturvetare eller kemister. Denna avhandling undersöker och ifrågasätter den negativa bilden av kemiämnet genom att till en början studera gymnasieelevers syn på kemi. Med utgångspunkt från naturvetarelevers förslag för att förbättra kemiundervisningen och göra ämnet mer intressant och meningsfullt, anknyter avhandlingen därefter till kontextbaserad kemi. Kontextbaserade kurser används i flera länder för att öka elevernas intresse, minska fokuseringen på utantillkunskaper och utveckla elevernas mer avancerade tänkande; med andra ord med målet att uppnå ett meningsfullt lärande. Vid kontextbaserade angreppssätt utgår man från ett sammanhang (kontexten), ofta något personligt eller samhälleligt, som ska vara relevant och intressant. Från dessa kontexter koncentreras därefter undervisningen på de ämneskunskaper man behöver ha för att förstå sammanhanget (s.k. need-to-know). Syftet med avhandlingen är att undersöka naturvetarelevers syn på gymnasiekemin, både deras intresse för ämnet och deras skäl att välja det naturvetenskapliga programmet på gymnasiet, samt elevernas problemlösningsförmåga och användande av ämneskunskaper när de löser kontextbaserade kemiuppgifter. Skälet att studera naturvetarelever på gymnasiet är att dessa elever uppfattas som möjliga framtida naturvetare eftersom de själva har valt naturvetenskaplig inriktning efter den obligatoriska grundskolan. Med hjälp av olika metoder (enkäter, klassrums- observationer, skriftliga lösningar till kemiuppgifter och intervjuer med både elever och experter som löser kemiuppgifter) har analyser genomförts för att dels får en allmän överblick, dels för att utforska specifika delar i detalj både gällande kognitiva och affektiva aspekter av lärande. Resultaten visar att flertalet elever har en positiv inställning till kemi, många tycker att ämnet är intressant och har valt att fortsätta läsa kemi efter den obligatoriska grundskolan främst med målet att studera vidare på universitetsnivå, men också eftersom de specifikt uppskattar kemi. Gymnasieeleverna lyfter fram lärarna som viktiga och lärarstyrda kemilektioner anses positivt, speciellt om lärarna är strukturerade i sin undervisning. Ett vanligt skäl till att välja naturvetenskapsprogrammet är också att man aktivt väljer utbildning med utgångspunkt från vilken skola man vill gå på, något som i denna avhandling tolkas som ett identitetsskapande. Elevernas förslag för att förbättra skolkemin genom att anknyta kemin till vardagen låg till grund för avhandlingens fortsatta inriktning mot kontextbaserade angreppssätt. Analyser av elevernas kognitiva resultat när de löser kontextbaserade kemiuppgifter visar att dagens skolkemi tydligt fokuserar på att memorera faktakunskaper. Eleverna är vana att använda utantillkunskaper när de löser kemiuppgifter eftersom uppgifterna, enligt eleverna, efterfrågar ”det rätta svaret”. Däremot visar studierna också att ett mer avancerat tänkande kan uppnås när elevernas problemlösning stöds av hjälp och ledtrådar som baseras på ett specifikt ramverk, MHC-C (Model of Hierarchical Complexity in Chemistry). När det gäller ämneskunskaperna som krävs för att lösa de kontextbaserade kemiuppgifterna är vissa kemibegrepp viktiga tröskelbegrepp (sk. threshold concepts). Med hjälp av medvetenhet om tröskelbegrepp, som exempelvis polaritet och elektronegativitet för löslighetsuppgifter inom den organiska kemin, kan en större helhetsförståelse för övergripande begrepp (crosscutting disciplinary concepts) som förhållandet mellan kemiska ämnens struktur och egenskaper förhoppningsvis uppnås. När det gäller affektiva resultat anser eleverna att kontexterna i uppgifterna både var intressanta och relevanta, främst när en personlig anknytning var tydlig. Dessutom visade sig kontexterna i uppgifterna vara positiva för lärandet, inte en distraktionsfaktor. Sammanfattningsvis konstateras att svenska elever på naturvetenskaps- programmet är intresserade av kemi och uppskattar kemiundervisningen, speciellt om kemin knyts till vardagen och att lärarna har en tydlig struktur i sin undervisning. Elevernas skäl att välja fortsatta kemistudier efter den obligatoriska grundskolan kan knytas till deras utbildningssträvan men också att elevers identitetsskapande är viktigt för deras gymnasieval. Med hjälp av kontextbaserade angreppssätt kan kemiundervisningen göras mer intressant och relevant samtidigt som elevernas problemlösningsförmåga kan utvecklas. När eleverna möter mer öppna frågor som kräver förklaringar och resonemang är de ovana vid detta och uppfattar uppgifterna komplicerade, samtidigt som de uppskattar denna typ av uppgifter eftersom de uppfattas relevanta och intressanta. Slutsatsen blir att elevernas förmåga till problemlösning av öppna frågor som både kräver faktakunskaper men också förklaringar och resonemang måste tränas oftare inom ramen för skolans kemi för att utveckla elevernas meningsfulla lärande.

Education is rapidly moving away from the instructional models of the 19th century and educationalists are now asserting that not only do students need to be able to learn by rote but also to be able to think in a more profound and complex manner. Students are required to develop new processes to handle the rapidly changing world that they are expected to take part in as they complete their formal learning. This change is evident in all the developed nations and Australian students are finding that they are being asked to demonstrate a range of higher order thinking skills in all their school subjects. Science courses in Queensland require students to be assessed on both complex reasoning and scientific process skills. Studies have shown that students can develop these skills in a number of ways that include the exposure to appropriate open-ended hands-on tasks. As higher order thinking skills underlie the development of both complex reasoning and scientific process, it is important that science educators take appropriate steps to facilitate the development of this level of thinking. This study examined the use of some higher order thinking skills by students using Information Technology in their science classroom. It investigated the degree to which students used their higher order thinking skills when engaged in a computer simulation of a complex science task. The study involved two pairs of Year 9 students, one pair each from the upper and lower quartiles of the year level, in a private Years 4 to 12 boys' school in an inner Brisbane suburb. All students had been immersed in Information Technology in Years 4 to 8 as part of a technology-across-the-curriculum project for all year levels in the school and at the time of the study were at the end of their second semester in Year 9. Students had worked with a large number of computer applications in all their subjects, averaging about one lesson in the computer room per day across all their subjects for the past year of schooling. The school also had a policy for learning and teaching that revolved around the development in students of critical thinking and, specifically in Science, complex reasoning, and scientific process skills. During this study, students engaged in a computer simulation requiring the application of skills and knowledge already learnt in their science course. The modules of this simulation developed an understanding of the essentials for life and the quantities of a range of items from water to seeds to land areas that would be required for a number of people that would be needed to staff the Lunar Base. Prompts were given on the way, which assisted students in their decision making. Students progressed through the various areas and stages of the development of the Lunar Base until they were satisfied that each area supported the others and that there was no imbalance that needed to be corrected. Once all stages had been completed, students were free to change variables and experiment further as they saw fit in order that they might produce the most self-sufficient Lunar Base possible. There was some evidence that the simulation did encourage the students in the pairs observed to think in greater depth about the materials and to argue their convictions in an improved manner. As well as the students appearing to increase in competency in argument over the period of time, the four students in their final interviews, spoke of feeling satisfied with the results of the lessons. The students also appeared more engrossed in their task and the pedagogy provided in the task was appreciated as it gave meaning to why they were required to learn scientific materials as well also presenting them with ways to find the knowledge for themselves.

In this study a phenomenographic theoretical perspective is taken as departure for research on manifested critical thinking in civics among Swedish ninth-grade compulsory school students. According to the phenomenographic perspective students’ manifestations of critical thinking are linked to the way of experiencing the phenomena inducing a manifestation of critical thinking. Thus differences between students’ manifestations of critical thinking are linked to differences in the way of experiencing the phenomena inducing a manifestation of critical thinking. The empirical investigation in this study revolves around how 19 ninth-grade students experience four different tasks designed to induce manifestations of critical thinking. In broad terms the main aim of the study is to describe the students’ different ways of experiencing each specific task and furthermore, to link each specific way of experiencing a specific task to a specific type of manifested critical thinking in relation to that task. A more overarching aim is to offer and test the phenomenographic theoretical perspective as a way of conducting research on manifested critical thinking. The empirical results show how the way of experiencing a specific task plays a decisive roll for the type of manifested critical thinking, made possible in relation to the specific task. A more complex way of experiencing the task can be linked to a more complex manifestation of critical thinking in relation to the task. A less complex way of experiencing the task can be linked to a less complex manifestation of critical thinking in relation to the task. The study also suggests how these empirical results can be used in a pedagogical situation in order to enhance students manifested critical thinking in civics. Concerning the more overarching aim the study strongly points to a further use of the phenomenographic perspective when conducting research on students manifested critical thinking.

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Academics encounter problems with the selection, evaluation, testing and implementation of e-assessment software tools. The researcher experienced these problems while adopting e-assessment at the university where she is employed. Hence she undertook this study, which is situated in schools and departments in Computing-related disciplines, namely Computer Science, Information Systems and Information Technology at South African Higher Education Institutions. The literature suggests that further research is required in this domain. Furthermore, preliminary empirical studies indicated similar disabling factors at other South African tertiary institutions, which were barriers to long-term implementation of e-assessment. Despite this, academics who are adopters of e-assessment indicate satisfaction, particularly when conducting assessments with large classes. Questions of the multiple choice genre can be assessed automatically, leading to increased productivity and more frequent assessments. The purpose of this research is to develop an evaluation framework to assist academics in determining which e-assessment tool to adopt, enabling them to make more informed decisions. Such a framework would also support evaluation of existing e-assessment systems. The underlying research design is action research, which supported an iterative series of studies for developing, evaluating, applying, refining, and validating the SEAT (Selecting and Evaluating an e-Assessment Tool) Evaluation Framework and subsequently an interactive electronic version, e-SEAT. Phase 1 of the action research comprised Studies 1 to 3, which established the nature, context and extent of adoption of e-assessment. This set the foundation for development of SEAT in Phase 2. During Studies 4 to 6 in Phase 2, a rigorous sequence of evaluation and application facilitated the transition from the manual SEAT Framework to the electronic evaluation instrument, e-SEAT, and its further evolution. This research resulted in both a theoretical contribution (SEAT) and a practical contribution (e-SEAT). The findings of the action research contributed, along with the literature, to the categories and criteria in the framework, which in turn, contributed to the bodies of knowledge on MCQs and e-assessment. The final e-SEAT version, the ultimate product of this action research, is presented in Appendix J1. For easier reference, the Appendices are included on a CD, attached to the back cover of this Thesis.. / Computing / PhD. (Information Systems)

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of Technology teachers’ knowledge in promoting learners’ higher order thinking skills. This aim was addressed by conducting the relevant literature survey and an empirical investigation. Four schools were selected in the Johannesburg West District. Here, twelve Grade 7 Technology teachers, three from each school, were interviewed and observations conducted. The data was analysed and findings presented ultimately. The findings reveal that Technology teachers who possess a greater depth of technological content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and assessment knowledge are more effective in as far as promoting learners’ higher order thinking. On the other hand, Technology teachers who possess a shallow technological content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and assessment knowledge struggle to promote learners’ higher order thinking. The main conclusions drawn from this study are that Technology teachers’ knowledge can play a role in learners’ acquisition of higher order thinking skills. Therefore, Technology teachers should acquire a sound technological knowledge in order to be able to promote learners’ acquisition of higher order thinking skills. / Curriculum and Instructional Studies / M. Ed. (Curriculum Studies) / Technology -- Study and teaching (Secondary) -- South Africa -- Johannesburg -- Case studies / Critical thinking -- South Africa -- Johannesburg -- Case studies

This study focused on how teachers' planning and teaching methods changed after they acquired more confidence in applying differentiated strategies in their instructional units. Teachers were given a questionnaire about their skills, qualifications and teaching beliefs comparing teaching general education students and gifted education students within the typical classroom setting. Then teachers received several professional development opportunities within the school year exposing them to different forms of differentiation. Time was given between trainings so that teachers would have ample time to integrate what they learned into their planning and instructional design. At the end of the study, teachers were given another questionnaire, similar to the first one, where they had to rank themselves on skills, education, and teaching methods for general education students and gifted students after the professional development. Comparisons between the two questionnaires showed that teachers were more confident in how to meet individual students' needs through differentiation after the trainings than before the study. In fact, before the study, 50% of teachers reported that the needs of gifted students are not being met in the general classroom setting; but, after the study, that number dropped to only 6%. Because teachers felt more confident in their abilities to teach gifted students in the traditional classrooms, the students' needs were addressed.

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of Technology teachers’ knowledge in promoting learners’ higher order thinking skills. This aim was addressed by conducting the relevant literature survey and an empirical investigation. Four schools were selected in the Johannesburg West District. Here, twelve Grade 7 Technology teachers, three from each school, were interviewed and observations conducted. The data was analysed and findings presented ultimately. The findings reveal that Technology teachers who possess a greater depth of technological content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and assessment knowledge are more effective in as far as promoting learners’ higher order thinking. On the other hand, Technology teachers who possess a shallow technological content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and assessment knowledge struggle to promote learners’ higher order thinking. The main conclusions drawn from this study are that Technology teachers’ knowledge can play a role in learners’ acquisition of higher order thinking skills. Therefore, Technology teachers should acquire a sound technological knowledge in order to be able to promote learners’ acquisition of higher order thinking skills. / Curriculum and Instructional Studies / M. Ed. (Curriculum Studies) / Technology -- Study and teaching (Secondary) -- South Africa -- Johannesburg -- Case studies / Critical thinking -- South Africa -- Johannesburg -- Case studies

Digital educational technology is capable of contributing supplementary strategies that can be used to address various educational challenges faced by higher education. Foremost among these challenges is the widespread lack of academic preparedness of students who enter South African higher education institutions. The legacy of Apartheid, teachers' poor domain knowledge and command of the language of instruction, together with a lack of commitment to the cognitive development of learners are some of the reasons why students have not developed the cognitive skills required to engage in meaningful learning. Meaningful learning requires a high level of conceptual engagement and development. To assist in the learning process, educators must focus on student learning rather than on the instructor and the technology used in the instruction. A powerful means of supporting meaningful learning is through a process of model building. Computer technology can effectively be used to facilitate the building of conceptual models. By encouraging students to use computer technology to build models that represent their personal understanding, the students are performing the role of designer and the technology is used as a cognitive tool. Using digital technology as a cognitive tool allows students to engage in critical thinking and higher-order learning. An expert system shell is one way in which technology can be used as a cognitive tool. When students build expert systems they are required to demonstrate the reasoning of an expert and to exhibit an understanding of causal relationships and procedural knowledge. There is very little evidence of research concerning the application of expert systems as a cognitive tool in education. The primary aim of this study is to formulate design principles in the form of conjectures and principles related to a learning environment that uses technology as a cognitive tool in the form of an expert system shell to promote higher-order thinking skills. The second aim of this study is to explore the experiences of students who are exposed to a learning environment based on the conjectures and principles formulated during the design phase of the research. The conjectures and principles formulated during this study are expressed in terms of the characteristics, procedures and arguments associated with a learning environment that uses technology in the form of an expert system shell to facilitate higher-order thinking. These conjectures and principles were separated into seven interrelated clusters that can be summarised as follows: <ul><li> initial exposure;</li><li> guided discovery learning;</li><li> designing the expert system on paper;</li><li> creating domain awareness;</li><li> linking conceptual understanding to a representation of that understanding;</li><li> hands-on development; and</li><li> problem engagement.</il></ul> These conjectures and principles could guide similar endeavours undertaken by lecturers or instructional designers. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Science, Mathematics and Technology Education / unrestricted