En continuant à suivre la loi de Moore, les transistors ont atteint des dimensions de plus en plus réduites. Cependant pour les largeurs inférieures à 100nm, des effets parasites dits de canaux courts sont apparus. Il a ainsi fallu développer de nouvelles architectures, à savoir les transistors 3D, aussi appelés trigates, finfets ou encore nanofils. Le remplacement des transistors planaires utilisés depuis les années 60 par ces dispositifs tridimensionnels constitue une réelle rupture technologique et pose de sérieuses questions quant à la fiabilité de ces nouveaux composants électroniques. Parmi les spécificités des dispositifs 3D, on peut notamment citer l’utilisation de différents plans cristallins du silicium, les potentiels effets d’angle ou encore le confinement des porteurs de charge. Les principaux mécanismes de fiabilité doivent, à ce titre, être étudiés afin de prédire le vieillissement de tels dispositifs. Ainsi, l’évolution du transistor MOS et les limites de l’architecture planaire sont rappelées dans un premier temps. Les différents mécanismes de dégradation ainsi que les méthodes de caractérisation sont également exposés. Les défauts d’oxyde jouant un rôle important en fiabilité, l’impact sur la tension de seuil VT d’une charge élémentaire q selon sa localisation spatiale a été simulé. On a ainsi pu constater que l’influence de ces défauts change selon leur position mais aussi selon les dimensions du transistor lui-même. Par la suite, le manuscrit se concentre sur la dégradation BTI (Bias Temperature Instabilities). Une comparaison entre les transistors trigates et d’autres quasi planaires a ainsi été effectuée en mettant en évidence les effets de la largeur du MOSFET. Un autre mécanisme important de fiabilité est intitulé dégradation par porteurs chauds ou HC, hot carriers en anglais. Les principaux modèles développés sur les architectures planaires ont été rappelés puis vérifiés pour les transistors 3D. Lors de stress HC, les niveaux de courant sont tels que des effets d’auto-échauffement apparaissent et dégradent les paramètres électriques du dispositif. Cette contribution a alors dû être décorrélée de la contrainte porteurs chauds afin d’obtenir uniquement la dégradation HC. De manière similaire au BTI, les effets de la largeur du transistor ont également été analysés pour ce mécanisme de fiabilité. Enfin, l’effet des contraintes mécaniques dans le canal, telles que le strained-SOI ou l’apport de germanium, a été étudié non seulement du point de vue des performances mais également de la fiabilité. Nous avons alors pu en déduire le meilleur compromis performance/fiabilité réalisable. / By continuing to follow Moore’s law, transistors have reached ever smaller dimensions. However, from 100nm gate length, parasitic effects called short channel effects appear. As a result new architectures named trigate, nanowires or finfets have been developed. The transition from planar technology used for the last fifty years to 3D devices is a major technological breakthrough. The special features of these architectures like conduction over various crystalline planes, corner effects or carrier confinement effects raise numerous questions about their reliability. Main reliability mechanisms have to be study in order to evaluate 3D transistor aging. In this way, MOS transistor evolution and planar architecture limits have first been reminded. The electrical degradation mechanisms and their characterization methods have also been exposed. As oxide defects represent an important part of device reliability, impact on threshold voltage VT of an elementary charge q has been simulated in accordance to its spatial localization. Thus we can notice that the defect influence on VT change with at once its position and the device dimensions. Next, this manuscript focuses on Bias Temperature Instabilities (BTI). A parallel has been done between narrow Trigate devices and wide ones which can be considered as planar transistors and a width effect on NBTI (Negative BTI) degradation has been highlighted. Another major reliability mechanism is called hot carrier degradation. Its principle models developed on planar architecture have been remembered and their validity on Trigate transistors has been verified. During HC stress, current density can be so high that self-heating effects appear and degrade device electrical parameters. Therefore this contribution has been decorrelate from HC degradation in order to obtain the result of HC stress only. As in BTI chapter, width effect has also been evaluated for this reliability mechanism. Finally strain effects in channel region have been analyzed from both performance and reliability point of view. As a conclusion the best tradeoff between these two items has been determined.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:25:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-02-17Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:14:03Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 bauke_fc_me_rcla.pdf: 1413465 bytes, checksum: 5695187aaf8a438767e3a8684e26c073 (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Neste trabalho estudamos o modelo do movimento Browniano de uma partícula carregada sob a ação de campos elétrico e magnético, externos e homogêneos, no formalismo de Langevin. Calculamos a energia cinética média através do teorema da flutuação-dissipação e obtivemos uma expressão para a temperatura efetiva das partículas Brownianas em função da temperatura do reservatório e dos campos externos. Esta temperatura efetiva mostrou-se sempre maior que a temperatura do reservatório, o que explica a expressão “portadores quentes”. Estudamos essa temperatura efetiva no regime assintótico, ou seja, no estado estacionário atingido em tempos muito longos (quando comparado com o tempo de colisão) e a utilizamos para escrever as equações de transporte em semicondutores, denominadas equações de Shockley generalizadas sendo que incluem nesse caso também a ação do campo magnético. Uma aplicação direta e relevante foi a modelagem para o já conhecido efeito Gunn para portadores assumidos como Brownianos. A temperatura efetiva calculada por nós no regime transiente permitiu estudar também os efeitos do reservatório na relaxação da temperatura efetiva à temperatura terminal (de não equilíbrio e estacionária). Nossos resultados no que diz respeito ao efeito Gunn, embora seja o modelo mais simples de um portador Browniano, mostrou uma surpreendente concordância com resultados experimentais, sugerindo que modelos mais sofisticados devam incluir os elementos apresentados neste estudo / We present a Brownian model for a charged particle in a field of forces, in particular, electric and magnetic external homogeneous fields, within the Langevin formalism. We compute the average kinetic energy via the fluctuation dissipation and obtain an expression for the Brownian particle´s effective temperature. The latter is a function of the heat bath temperature and both external fields. This effective temperature is always greater than the heat bath temperature, therefore the expression “hot carriers”. This effective temperature, in the asymptotic regime, the stationary state at long times (greater than the collision time), is used to write down the transport equations for semiconductors, namely the generalized Shockley equations, now incorporating the magnetic field effect. A direct and relevant application follows: a model for the well known Gunn effect, assuming a Brownian scheme. In the transient regime the computed effective temperature also allow us to probe some features of the heat bath, as the effective temperature relaxes to its terminal stationary value. As for our results in the Gunn effect model, the simplest of all in a Brownian scheme, we obtain a surprisingly good agreement with experimental data, suggesting that more involved models should include our minimal assumptions

The effects of optical heating via infrared free carrier absorption on the electron magneto-transport properties of n-InSb at helium temperatures have been studied for the first time. Oscillatory photoconductivity (OPC) type structure is seen in the photon energy dependence of the transport properties. A C0₂ laser (hω = 115 to 135 meV) was used as the optical source. Concentrations between 1 x 10¹⁵ cm⁻³ and 2 x 10¹⁶ cm⁻³ were studied. The conclusions of this study are that the energy relaxation of high energy photoexcited electrons, generated by free carrier absorption of C0₂ laser radiation in degenerate n-InSb at liquid helium temperatures, is by emission of a maximum number of optical phonons, and that this relaxation mechanism produces OPC type structure in the photon energy dependence of the electron temperature of the conduction band electron gas. This structure is seen, therefore, in the transport properties of the sample, including the Shubnikovde Haas effect, the effective absorption coefficient, and the photoconductivity (mobility) response (lower concentrations only). In addition, the highest concentration studied, nₑ = ~2 x 10¹⁶ cm⁻³, sets an experimental lower limit on the concentration at which electron-electron scattering will become the dominant energy relaxation mechanism for the photoexcited electrons, since OPC effects were present in this sample.

This thesis describes studies on two-dimensional electron gases (2DEG) in graphene and related 2D systems. Magnetotransport investigations specifically in graphene and its bilayer system are demonstrated in detail, while the experimental techniques presented in this thesis are widely applicable to a large variety of other 2D materials. Chapter 1 gives an introduction and motivation for the principal topic presented in this thesis, with a general introduction to carbon nano-materials and an overview of the current state of graphene-related research and technological development (RTD). Chapter 2 establishes a basic theoretical framework which is essential for interpreting the results presented in this thesis, starting with the crystal and electronic band structures of graphene and its bilayer, followed by high magnetic fields effects on transport properties in these 2D systems. Chapter 3 details the experimental methods directly related to the presented work. The next three chapters report experimental results of three specific magnetotransport studies. Chapter 4 reports the disorder effects on epitaxial graphene in the vicinity of the Dirac point. Quadratic increases of carrier densities with temperature are found to be due to intrinsic thermal excitation combined with electron-hole puddles induced by charged impurities. It is also shown that the minimum conductivity increases with increasing disorder strength, in good agreement with quantum-mechanical numerical calculations. Chapter 5 reports measurements of the quantum Hall effect in epitaxial graphene showing the widest quantum Hall plateau observed to date extending over 50 T, attributed to a magnetic field dependent charge transfer process from charge reservoirs with exceptionally high densities of states in close proximity to the graphene. Using a realistic framework of broadened Landau levels this process is modelled in excellent agreement with experimental results. In Chapter 6, energy relaxation of hot carriers in graphene bilayer systems is investigated from measurements on Shubnikovde Haas oscillations and weak localisation. The hot-electron energy loss rate follows the predicted T⁴ power-law at carrier temperatures from 1.4 up to about 100 K, due to electron-acoustic phonon interactions. Comparisons are made between graphene monolayer and bilayer systems and a much stronger carrier density dependence of the energy loss rate is found in the bilayer system. This thesis concludes with a summary of the most important findings of the topics that have been discussed. The significance and limitations of the present research are listed. Some suggestions and outlook are given for possible improvements and interesting areas of future research and development.

Carrier and lattice relaxation after optical excitation is simulated for the prototypical wide-bandgap semiconductors CuI and ZnO. Transient temperature dynamics of electrons, holes as well as longitudinal-optic (LO), transverse-optic (TO) and acoustic phonons are distinguished. Carrier-LO-phonon interaction constitutes the dominant energy-loss channel as expected for polar semiconductors and hot-phonon effects are observed for strong optical excitation. Our results support the findings of recent time-resolved optical spectroscopy experiments.

A unified study on the hot carrier reliability of the Pseudomorphic High Electron Mobility Transistor (PHEMT) is carried out through Sentaurus Device Simulation, measurement, and physical analyses. A trade study of devices with four various geometries are evaluated for DC and RF performance. The trade-off of DC I-V characteristics, transconductance, and RF parameters versus hot carrier induced gate current is assessed for each device. Ambient temperature variation is also evaluated to observe its impact on hot carrier effects. A commercial grade PHEMT is then evaluated and measured to demonstrate the performance degradation that occurs after a period of operation in an accelerated stress regime— one hour of high drain voltage, low drain current stress. This stress regime and normal operation regime are then modeled through Sentaurus. Output characteristics are shown along with stress mechanisms within the device. Lastly, a means of simulating a PHEMT post-stress is introduced. The approach taken accounts for the activation of dopants near the channel. Post-stress simulation results of DC and RF performance are then investigated.

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This dissertation focuses on projects where optical techniques were employed to characterize novel materials, developing concepts toward next generation of devices. The materials that I studied included InAsP, InMnSb and InMnAs, and BT-BCN. I have employed several advanced time resolved and magneto-optical techniques to explore unexplored properties of these structures. The first class of the materials were the ternary alloys InAsP. The electron g-factor of InAsP can be tuned, even allowing for g=0, making InAsP an ideal candidate for quantum communication devices. Furthermore, InAsP shows promises for opto-electronics and spintronics, where the development of devices requires extensive knowledge of carrier and spin dynamics. Thus, I have performed time and polarization resolved pump-probe spectroscopy on InAsP with various compositions. The carrier and spin relaxation time in these structures were observed and demonstrated tunability to the excitation wavelengths, composition and temperature. The sensitivity to these parameters provide several avenues to control carrier and spin dynamics in InAsP alloys. The second project focused on the ferromagnetic narrow gap semiconductors InMnAs and InMnSb. The incorporation of Mn can lead to ferromagnetic behavior of InMnAs and InMnSb, and enhance the g-factors, making them ideal candidates for spintronics devices. When grown using Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE), the Curie temperature (textit{$T_c$}) of these structures is textless 100 K, however structures grown using Metalorganic Vapor phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) have textit{$T_c$} textgreater 300 K. Magnetic circular dichroism was performed on MOVPE grown InMnAs and InMnSb. Comparison of the experimental results with the theoretical calculations provides a direct method to map the band structure, including the temperature dependence of the spin-orbit split-off band to conduction band transition and g-factors, as well as the estimated sp-d electron/hole coupling parameters. My final project was on the lead-free ferroelectric BT-BCN. Ferroelectric materials are being investigated for high speed, density, nonvolatile and energy efficient memory devices; however, commercial ferroelectric memories typically contain lead, and use a destructive reading method. Reflectometry measurements were used in order to determine the refractive index of BT-BCN with varying thicknesses, which can provide a means to nondestructively read ferroelectric memory through optical methods. / Ph. D.

La conception en vue de la fiabilité (DFR, Design for Reliability) consiste à simuler le vieillissement électrique des composants élémentaires pour évaluer la dégradation d'un circuit complet. C'est dans ce contexte de fiabilité et de simulation de cette dernière, qu'une stratégie de conception en vue de la fiabilité a été développée au cours de ses travaux. Cette stratégie, intégrant une approche « système » de la simulation, s'appuie sur l'ajout de deux étapes intermédiaires dans la phase de conception. La première étape est une étape de construction de modèles comportementaux compacts à l'aide d'une méthodologie basée sur une approche de modélisation multi niveaux (du niveau transistor au niveau circuit) des dégradations d'un circuit. La seconde étape consiste alors l'analyse descendante de la fiabilité de ce circuit, à l'aide de simulations électriques utilisant ses modèles comportementaux dits « dégradables », afin de déterminer les blocs fonctionnels et/ou les composants élémentaires critiques de l'architecture de ce dernier, vis-à-vis d'un mécanisme de défaillance et un profil de mission donnés. Cette analyse descendante permet aussi d'évaluer l'instant de défaillance de ce circuit. Les dispersions statiques, lies au procédé de fabrication utilisé, sur les performances d'un lot de CIs ont aussi été prises en compte afin d'évaluer leur impact sur la dispersion des instants de défaillance des circuits intégrés. Ces méthodes ont été appliquées à deux mécanismes de dégradation : les porteurs chauds et les radiations. / Design for reliability (DFR) consists in assessing the impact of electrical ageing of each elementary component, using electrical simulations, on performance degradations of a full device. According to DFR concept and reliability simulation, theses works present a new DFR strategy. This strategy based on the integration of two intermediate phases in the ICs and SoC design flow. The first phase is a bottom-up ageing behavioural modelling phase of a circuit (from transistor level to circuit level). The second phase is a « top-down reliability analyses » phase of this circuit, performing electrical simulations using its ageing behavioural models, in order to determine critical functional blocks and / or elementary components of its architecture according to a failure mechanism and a given mission profile. Theses analyses also allow determining the failure time of this circuit. Statistical dispersions on ICs performances, due to the used manufacturing process, have been taking into account in order to assess their impact on failure time dispersions of a ICs lot. The method has been applied on two degradation mechanisms: hot carriers and radiations.

Le sujet de cette thèse est l’analyse de la fiabilité des transistors bipolaires à hétérojonction SiGe:C et descircuits intégrés associés. Dans ce but, un modèle compact prenant en compte l’évolution des caractéristiquesdes transistors SiGe:C a été développé. Ce modèle intègre les lois de vieillissement des mécanismes dedéfaillance des transistors identifiés lors des tests de vieillissement. Grâce aux simulations physiques TCADcomplétées par une analyse du bruit basses fréquences, deux mécanismes de dégradations ont été localisés. Eneffet, selon les conditions de polarisation, des porteurs chauds se retrouvent injectés aux interfaces dutransistor. Ces porteurs chauds ont suffisamment d’énergie pour dégrader l’interface en augmentantprogressivement leurs densités de pièges. L’une des deux interfaces dégradées se situe au niveau del’’’espaceur’’ émetteur-base dont l’augmentation de la densité de piège dépend des porteurs chauds créés parionisation par impact. L’autre interface dégradée se situe entre le silicium et le STI dont l’augmentation dedensité de pièges dépend des porteurs chauds générés par ionisation par impact et/ou par génération Auger.En se basant sur ces résultats, une loi de vieillissement a été incorporée dans le modèle compact HICUM. Enutilisant ce modèle, l’étude de l’impact des mécanismes de défaillance sur un circuit amplificateur faible bruit aété menée. Cette étude a montré que le modèle compact intégrant les lois de vieillissement offre la possibilitéd’étudier la fiabilité d’un circuit complexe en utilisant les outils de conception standard permettant ainsi dediminuer le temps de conception global. / The SiGe:C HBT reliability is an important issue in present and future practical applications. To reduce the designtime and increase the robustness of circuit applications, a compact model taking into account aging mechanismactivation has been developed in this thesis. After an aging test campaign and physical TCAD simulations, onemain damage mechanism has been identified. Depending on the bias conditions, hot carriers can be generatedby impact ionization in the base-collector junction and injected into the interfaces of the device where trapdensity can be created, leading to device degradation. This degradation mechanism impacting the EB/spacerinterface has been implemented in the HICUM compact model. This compact model has been used to performreliability studies of a LNA circuit. The CPU simulation time is not impacted by the activation of the degradationcompact model with an increase in computation time lower than 1%. This compact model allows performing areliability analysis with conventional circuit simulators and can be used to assist the design of more robustcircuits, which could help in reducing the design time cycle. / L’affidabilità dei transistori a eterogiunzione SiGe:C è un aspetto molto importante nella progettazione circuitale,sia per le tecnologie attuali che per quelle in fase di sviluppo. In questo lavoro di tesi è stato sviluppato un modellocompatto in grado di descrivere i principali meccanismi di degrado, in modo da contribuire alla progettazione dicircuiti relativamente più robusti rispetto a tali fenomeni, ciò che potrebbe favorire una riduzione dei tempi diprogetto. A seguito di una campagna sperimentale e di un’analisi con tecniche TCAD, è stato identificato unmeccanismo principale di degrado. In particolari condizioni di polarizzazione, i portatori ad elevata energiagenerati per ionizzazione a impatto nella regione di carica spaziale, possono raggiungere alcune interfacce deldispositivo e ivi provocare la formazione di trappole. Solo la generazione di trappole relativa allo spaceremettitore-base è stata considerata nella formulazione del modello, essendo il fenomeno più rilevante. Ilmodello è stato utilizzato per effettuare alcuni studi di affidabilità di un amplificatore a basso rumore. Il tempocomputazionale non è significativamente influenzato dall’attivazione del modello di degrado, aumentando solodell’1%. Il modello sviluppato è compatibile con i comuni programmi di simulazione circuitale, e può essereimpiegato nella progettazione di circuiti con una migliore immunità rispetto ai fenomeni di degrado,contribuendo così a un riduzione dei tempi di progetto.