<p>Traditional cooking using biomass is associated with adverse health consequences, local environmental degradation, and regional climate change. Improved stoves (ICS; liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biogas, electric, efficient biomass) are heralded as a solution, but their adoption and use remains low. In the first chapter, I report on a series of pilot programs that utilized the marketing mix principles of promotion, product, price and place to increase stove sales in rural Inia. We found that when given a choice amongst products, households strongly preferred an electric stove over improved biomass-burning options. Households clearly identified price as a significant barrier to adoption, while provision of discounts (e.g., rebates given if households used the stove) or payments in installments were related to higher purchase. Collectively, these pilots point to the importance of continued and extensive testing of messages, pricing models, and responses to different stove types prior to scale-up. Thus, a one-size-fits-all approach will be unlikely to boost ICS adoption. </p><p>In the second and third chapters, I analyze the impact of mainly improved stove use on social, environmental, and health outcomes in rural India- first in a sample of biogas stove users in Odisha, India, and next with households in the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand. In both settings, ICS use was associated with reduced use of firewood, substantial time savings for primary cooks, and significant reduction in exposure to particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in household air. I find that ICS users in Odisha spend reduced time in the hospital with acute respiratory infection and reduced diastolic blood pressure, but no relationship with other health measurements. </p><p>In the third chapter, I also find significant reduction in exposure to personal air pollution. Using temperature sensors as objective stove use monitors for all stoves and heaters we find that households underreport use of improved and traditional stoves. </p><p>These papers provide encouraging evidence of potential for adoption of clean stove and a suite of benefits from clean stove use; however, in order to achieve recommended levels of air pollution additional policies may be needed.</p> / Dissertation

Hanseníase é uma das mais antigas e instigantes doenças que acometem o ser humano. Ferramentas moleculares e imunológicas são avaliadas em diversos estudos epidemiológicos, porém com resultados controversos devido à alta complexidade da doença e metodologias utilizadas. Este estudo descreve o uso da sorologia anti PGL-I e da detecção de DNA em swab nasal para caracterizar a epidemiologia molecular do Mycobacterium leprae em pacientes e contatos domiciliares de pacientes com hanseníase. Em pacientes com hanseníase a positividade nos testes ELISA anti PGL-I e PCR para a detecção do DNA de M. leprae em swab nasal são inversamente associadas ao teste de Mitsuda e são diretamente associadas com o índice baciloscópico e as formas clínicas no espectro da doença, aumentando em direção às formas bacilíferas. As porcentagens gerais de positividade em pacientes foram 63,3% para o ELISA anti PGL-I e 34,2% para a PCR para detecção do DNA de M. leprae em swab nasal. Nos contatos domiciliares de pacientes com hanseníase as porcentagens gerais para o ELISA anti PGL-I e para a PCR para detecção do DNA de M. leprae em swab nasal foram 13,3% e 4,7% respectivamente. Os contatos com resultados positivos nestas metodologias representam portadores sadios ou com infecção subclínica e podem participar na transmissão e manutenção do M. leprae na comunidade, mesmo que os mesmos não venham a adoecer. É imperativo para o controle da hanseníase o monitoramento de contatos domiciliares em regiões endêmicas para detecção precoce de novos casos e a quimioprofilaxia deve ser utilizada como prevenção para o desenvolvimento da doença e interrupção da transmissão. / Leprosy is one of the oldest and most instigating diseases to affect humans. Molecular and immunological tools are evaluated in epidemiological studies; however, the results present controversies mainly due to disease complexity and methodologies. This study describes the application of anti PGL-I serology and nasal swab DNA detection to characterize Mycobacterium leprae molecular epidemiology in patients and household contacts of leprosy patients. Among leprosy patients the positivity to the anti PGL-I ELISA and the PCR for the detection of M. leprae DNA in nasal swabs are inversely associated to the lepromin test and arte directly associated to the bacillary index and the clinical forms in the disease spectrum, increasing towards baciliferous forms. The overall positivity percentages were 63.3% for the anti PGL-I ELISA and 34.2% for the PCR for the detection ofM. leprae DNA in nasal swabs. Among household contacts of leprosy patients the overall percentages for the anti PGL-I ELISA and for the PCR for the detection of M. leprae DNA in nasal swabs were 13.3% e 4.7% respectively. Among leprosy patients, assays positivity is associated with the clinical presentation of the disease, increasing towards bacilliferous subtypes. Positive results in contacts represent healthy carriers and subclinical infection and these individuals can participate in transmission and spread of M. leprae in the community, even though they may not develop the disease. In endemic regions, contact monitoring is imperative in leprosy control for early case detection and chemoprophylaxis must be applied as prevention to disease development and disruption of transmission. / Dissertação (Mestrado)

Home based interventions are advocated in rural areas against a variety of diseases. The combination of different interventions might have synergistic effects in terms of health improvement and cost effectiveness. However, it is crucial to ensure cultural acceptance. The aim of the study was to develop an effective and culturally accepted home-based intervention package to reduce diarrhoea and lower respiratory illnesses in children. In two rural Peruvian communities we evaluated the performance and acceptance of cooking devices, household water treatments (HWT) and home–hygiene interventions, with qualitative and quantitative methods. New ventilated stove designs reduced wood consumption by 16%. The majority of participants selected solar water disinfection as HWT in a blind tasting. In-depth interviews on hygiene improvement further revealed a high demand for kitchen sinks. After one year of installation the improved chimney stoves and kitchen sinks were all in use. The intervention package was successfully adapted to local customs, kitchen-, home–and hygiene management. High user satisfaction was primarily driven by convenience gains due to the technical improvements and only secondarily by perceived health benefits. / Revisión por pares.

Cette thèse porte sur la production des espaces domestiques et villageois en milieu rural et s’appuie sur une ethnographie menée pendant plus de dix-huit mois dans le village malinké de Guirlan, situé au nord-est de la Guinée. Elle articule les notions d’espace, de mobilité et de relation sociale en insistant sur les pratiques quotidiennes des habitants. L’objet privilégié est celui de la résidence (lu), dont l’organisation topocentrique est analysée comme déterminante dans la construction des relations sociales. La démarche se veut elle aussi spatialisée. Le raisonnement débute dans les cours centrales, là où l’autorité est mise en acte. Il se poursuit dans la périphérie des espaces domestiques, puis en dehors du village. Les mines d’or, résultat de l’intensification de l’exploitation aurifère depuis les années 1980-1990 dans la région, sont alors présentées comme des espaces relativement autonomes comportant leurs propres règles. En revanche, les installations plus durables de migrants dans des villes plus lointaines, sont considérées comme des extensions de la résidence d’origine, permettant les mobilités de certains de ses membres. L’enjeu est en fait celui de la présence et des temporalités de l’absence. Alors que certains déplacements de courte distance sont analysés comme des ruptures, comme l’accompagnement de l’épouse chez son mari, d’autres, plus lointains, reposent sur une absence pensée dans sa présence future. À travers l’étude des pratiques spatiales, ce travail interroge donc plus largement la question de la reconnaissance sociale et de sa mise en visibilité au quotidien. / This thesis on the production of domestic and village spaces in a rural setting, is based on more than eighteen months of ethnographic fieldwork in the Malinke village of Guirlan in northeastern Guinea. It explores the interplay of space, mobility and social relationship, notably in the course of the inhabitants’ daily practices. The central object of this study is the residence (lu), whose topocentric organization is held to be determinate in the construction of social relations. The analysis itself also spatially grounded. Beginning in the central courtyards where authority is enacted, it moves out to the periphery of domestic areas, and then beyond the village itself. Gold mines, resulting from an intensification of mining in the region since 1980-1990, are seen as relatively autonomous spaces governed by rules of their own. On the other hand, more prolonged installations of migrants in cities further away are envisaged as extensions of their home residences that allow for the mobility of some of their members. All these cases deal with the issues of presence and the temporalities of absence. While certain short-range displacements, such as the accompaniment of a wife to her husband’s residence, are analyzed as ruptures or breaches, other more distant ones consist in an absence conceived as presence-to-come. By focusing on spatial practices, this study is directly concerned with the problem of social acknowledgement and its visibilization in daily life.

This thesis uses nonparametric revealed preference methods to derive new tests for consistency with models of consumer behaviour, and discuss the implications for welfare analysis. Chapter 1 demonstrates how to conduct revealed preference analysis when prices, and hence budget constraints, are only partially observed. This chapter extends the revealed preference results of Crawford and Polisson (2015), derived for the static case, to dynamic settings, allowing for storability of goods. Necessary and sufficient conditions for consistency with intertemporal models are derived, which do not require the researcher to distinguish between corner solutions and unavailability of the good, or to impute prices. Chapter 2 discusses the validity of using reported happiness measures as proxies of utility or social welfare, by testing for consistency between revealed and reported preference orderings in Japanese household survey data. Although the expenditure behaviour of most households is consistent with standard models of utility maximisation, it is generally inconsistent with the preference ordering given by their reported happiness. This inconsistency is likely due to reporting error in the happiness measure, and suggests that happiness and utility are empirically distinct and noninterchangeable. Chapter 3 investigates the effect of price inattention on inflation misperceptions and cost-of-living indices, by developing a behavioural model in which consumers only notice price changes above a certain threshold. A data application, using supermarket scanner data, demonstrates that this model generates plausible results; in particular, consumers have more accurate perceptions of inflation during periods of high or volatile inflation, but may substantially misperceive inflation when it is low. These results have important implications for conducting welfare analysis when consumers are not fully attentive to price changes.

abstract: Rapid developments are occurring in the arena of activity-based microsimulation models. Advances in computational power, econometric methodologies and data collection have all contributed to the development of microsimulation tools for planning applications. There has also been interest in modeling child daily activity-travel patterns and their influence on those of adults in the household using activity-based microsimulation tools. It is conceivable that most of the children are largely dependent on adults for their activity engagement and travel needs and hence would have considerable influence on the activity-travel schedules of adult members in the household. In this context, a detailed comparison of various activity-travel characteristics of adults in households with and without children is made using the National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) data. The analysis is used to quantify and decipher the nature of the impact of activities of children on the daily activity-travel patterns of adults. It is found that adults in households with children make a significantly higher proportion of high occupancy vehicle (HOV) trips and lower proportion of single occupancy vehicle (SOV) trips when compared to those in households without children. They also engage in more serve passenger activities and fewer personal business, shopping and social activities. A framework for modeling activities and travel of dependent children is proposed. The framework consists of six sub-models to simulate the choice of going to school/pre-school on a travel day, the dependency status of the child, the activity type, the destination, the activity duration, and the joint activity engagement with an accompanying adult. Econometric formulations such as binary probit and multinomial logit are used to obtain behaviorally intuitive models that predict children's activity skeletons. The model framework is tested using a 5% sample of a synthetic population of children for Maricopa County, Arizona and the resulting patterns are validated against those found in NHTS data. Microsimulation of these dependencies of children can be used to constrain the adult daily activity schedules. The deployment of this framework prior to the simulation of adult non-mandatory activities is expected to significantly enhance the representation of the interactions between children and adults in activity-based microsimulation models. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Civil and Environmental Engineering 2010

A mortalidade neonatal, em vários países do mundo, corresponde ao componente mais expressivo da mortalidade infantil. No Brasil, esta mortalidade mantém-se em patamares elevados e com acentuadas desigualdades regionais em sua distribuição. Este estudo teve como objetivos, analisar a tendência temporal e fatores associados à mortalidade neonatal, identificar padrões na sua distribuição espacial e a relação desta com as condições de vida além de analisar a evolução das desigualdades sociais no risco de morte neonatal e suas relações com características maternas, condições de nascimento, atenção à saúde e de condições de vida em Salvador, Bahia, no período de 1980 a 2006. No primeiro artigo que compõe esta tese, construiu-se uma série temporal dos óbitos neonatais de 1980 a 2006, enquanto nos segundo e terceiro artigos, correspondentes a estudos de agregados espaciais referentes a 2000-2006, Zonas de Informação (ZI) compuseram as unidades de análise. Estas foram agregadas em estratos de elevada, intermediária, baixa e muito baixa condição de vida, com base em um Índice de Condições de Vida. Análise de Componentes Principais, Correlação de Spearman, Regressão Linear ordinal e espacial e Qui-Quadrado de tendência foram métodos empregados na análise dos dados, além do Teste I de Moran (Global e Local) para avaliar dependência espacial, e Risco Relativo, para avaliar as desigualdades sociais. Os resultados demonstraram tendência de estabilização dos óbitos neonatais a partir de 1992 e as três principais causas são redutíveis por adequada atenção à gestação, ao parto e ao recém-nascido. Evidenciou-se autocorrelação espacial entre as taxas (I=0,1717; p=0,0100). O padrão espacial detectado teve a proporção de nascidos vivos (NV) com baixo peso como seu principal fator explicativo e definiu os maiores riscos para esta mortalidade (> 9,0/1000 NV) concentrados em áreas do centro e subúrbio, e os mais baixos (3,2 a 5,5/1000NV) ao sul e leste da cidade. Demonstrou-se associação da mortalidade neonatal com as condições de vida, confirmada pelo gradiente linear e crescente do risco nesta mortalidade do estrato de melhor para o de pior condição de vida, indicando a influência da desigualdade social nesta mortalidade. Há indícios de redução desta desigualdade, devido ao decréscimo ocorrido no estrato de intermediária condição de vida (β= -0,93; 0,039), aliada à reduzida variação no risco de morte neonatal do estrato de elevada condição de vida. São necessárias novas estratégias para a redução da mortalidade neonatal que contemplem maior qualificação e reestruturação da atenção à saúde materno-infantil, bem como outras que promovam melhorias nas condições de vida da população, sob o risco de comprometer a velocidade de decréscimo da mortalidade infantil no município. / Neonatal mortality in several countries of the world corresponds to the major component of infant mortality. In Brazil, this mortality remains at high levels and with marked regional differences in its distribution. This study aimed to analyze the trend and factors associated with neonatal mortality, identify patterns in their spatial distribution and the relationship between living conditions and to analyzing the evolution of social inequalities in risk of neonatal mortality and its relationship to maternal characteristics, conditions of birth, health care and living conditions in Salvador, Bahia, from 1980 to 2006. In the first article that makes up this thesis, we constructed a series of neonatal deaths from 1980 to 2006, whereas in the second and third articles, corresponding to spatial aggregation studies concerning the 2000-2006 period, Information Zones (IZ) were the units analysis. These were aggregated into strata of high, intermediate, low and very low standard of living based on an index of Living Conditions. Principal Component Analysis, Spearman correlation, linear regression, and chi-square test were used in data analysis, besides Moran’s Test I (Global and Local) in order to evaluate spatial dependence, and relative risk for social inequalities evaluation. The results showed a trend towards stabilization of neonatal deaths from 1992 and the three main causes are reducible by adequate attention to pregnancy, labor and the newborn. It was observed autocorrelation between the rates (I = 0.1717, p = 0.0100). The proportion of low birth weight as the main determinant of the spatial pattern detected and defined the greatest risk for infant mortality (>9.0/1000NV) concentrated in the downtown areas and suburbs, and the lowest (3.2 to 5.5/1000NV) to the south and east of the city. It was observed an association between neonatal mortality and living conditions, confirmed by the linear and increasing gradient of mortality risk as we go from the best stratum of living conditions to the worst one, indicating the influence social inequality on neonatal mortality. There is evidence that reducing inequality, due to the decrease occurred in the stratum living conditions (β = -0.93, 0.039), combined with reduced variation in the risk of neonatal death of the stratum living conditions. We need new strategies to reduce neonatal mortality, covering more advanced training and restructuring of attention to maternal and child health, as well as others that promote improvements in living conditions of population at risk of compromising the rate of decrease in infant mortality municipality.

A gap in the literature exists regarding the chemical effects of household acids at different concentrations on restored and non-restored dentition. The present study examines the effects of household corrosive products on human dentition. A total of 105 adult teeth consisting of restorations composed of silver amalgam, porcelain-fused-to-metal crowns, and teeth lacking restorative material were used. The household products utilized were hydrochloric acid (Clorox® Bleach Cleaner and The Works® Toilet Bowl Cleaner) and sulfuric acid (Drano® Drain Opener and Watchdog® Battery Acid), along with one control base (Biz® Detergent). Teeth were radiographed before and after exposure to the products and were removed from the solutions after 1, 2, 4, 8, 24, 72, 120 and 264 hours. Documentation included weight, mesiodistal and buccolingual crown measurements, ordinal scoring of alterations, and photography. The results indicate 86% of the teeth could be positively identified by radiographs after exposure. Hydrochloric acid had the most destructive effects to teeth without restorations and those with silver amalgam restorations but had a minimal effect on the porcelain-fused-to-metal samples. Sulfuric acid minimally altered the restored teeth and deteriorated some parts of the enamel and dentin of the non-restored samples. Exposure to the detergent resulted in no change. A logistic regression analysis was conducted to determine if there was statistical relevance in acid type, acid concentration, and the type of restoration of the tooth. Results indicate that acid type, acid concentration and the type of restoration are all statistically relevant for positively identifying an individual through radiographs. The results of this study demonstrate that various household corrosive substances can affect the morphology of teeth, and in some cases, destroy teeth, which could mask the identification of an individual. However, the porcelain-fused-to-metal crowns were minimally affected by corrosive agents and can therefore be used for positive identifications.

The structure of the family unit in the United Kingdom has undergone monumental changes in recent decades. The legal definition of a family has evolved substantially to include a wider range of family forms, most recently same-sex marriage, which became legal in the United Kingdom (excluding Northern Ireland) in 2014. Legal changes in the family accompany a range of social changes - among the most common of these is an expansion in the number of different-sex non-marital co-residential unions (concisely called "cohabitation") (Ermisch and Francesconi, 2000; Beaujouan and Bhrolcháin, 2011). Since the 1970s, these types of relationships have become widely accepted (Coast, 2009) and increasingly common (Office for National Statistics, 2012a). However, despite its prevalence, cohabitation in the United Kingdom is seldom studied independently of marriage. My dissertation strives to fill this gap in the literature. Specifically, my dissertation adds to the understanding of the household division of labour during cohabitation. Instead of merely examining cohabitation as one homogenous relationship type, Chapter 2 profiles three groups of cohabitants: 1) pre-marital cohabitants; 2) non-marital short-term cohabitants; 3) long-term cohabitants who reside together for five years or longer. Subsequent chapters examine how each of these groups, in turn, addresses the household division of labour - pre-marital and early couple formation cohabitation in Chapter 3, couples transitioning from cohabitation to marriage in Chapter 4, and during long-term cohabitation in Chapter 5. This dissertation is a significant contribution to the field of economic sociology because the household division of labour has not yet been explored during cohabitation in this way.

abstract: This study drew upon a bioecological framework to empirically investigate the relations between environmental chaos and preschoolers' language across time, including the potentially mediating roles of children's effortful control and parenting. Child sex also was examined as a moderator of these relations. For this study, the following data were collected at 30, 42, and 54 months of age. Household chaos and (at 30 months) socioeconomic status (SES) were reported by mothers. Children's effortful control (EC) was rated by mothers and nonparental caregivers, and was observed during a number of laboratory tasks. Maternal vocalizations were assessed during free play sessions with their children (at 30 and 42 months), and supportive and unsupportive parenting behaviors and affect were observed during free play and teaching tasks at each age. Mothers also reported on their own reactions to children's negative emotions. Finally, (at 54 months) children's expressive and receptive language was measured with a standard assessment. Structural equation modeling and path analyses indicated that SES at 30 months and greater levels of household chaos at 42 months predicted not only poorer language skills, but also deficits in children's EC and less supportive parenting in low-income mothers at 54 months, even when controlling for stability in these constructs. Children's effortful control at 42 months, but not parenting, positively predicted later language, suggesting that EC may play a mediating role in the relations between household chaos, as well as SES, and preschoolers' language abilities. Child sex did not moderate the pattern of relations. Post-hoc analyses also indicated that the negative relation between chaos and language was significant only for children who had low EC at 42 months. This study represents a much-needed addition to the currently limited longitudinal research examining environmental chaos and children's developmental outcomes. Importantly, findings from this study elucidate an important process underlying the links between chaos and children's language development, which can inform interventions and policies designed to support families and children living in chaotic home environments. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Family and Human Development 2012