Background: When children experience food insecurity, in addition to poverty, their resultant inadequate food intake and disease often leads to the development of proteinenergy malnutrition and ultimately to death. In South Africa, where three out of every four children live in poverty, food insecurity and its multiple negative effects are consequently among the most urgent social issues affecting households and their children. Since household food insecurity is thought to be associated with increased child mortality, it is important to study any such associations amongst South African children to determine additional risk factors for child mortality. Objectives: The main objective of this study was to establish the relationship between household food security and mortality in children under the age of five years in the Agincourt field site, Limpopo Province, in 2004. Methods: An analytical cross-sectional study of secondary data obtained from the 2004 census questionnaire and food security module of the Agincourt Health and Demographic Surveillance System in rural Limpopo Province was conducted, involving a total of 7,790 black children under the age of five years. Certain exposure variables were selected for use as indicators of food security and these were analysed with respect to child mortality using univariate and multivariate logistic regression. Results: Based on the outcome indicators of food consumption, 37% of the study population were found to have experienced household food insecurity in 2004, reporting insufficient food for the entire household in the previous month and year. The limited dietary diversity and insufficient quantities of food experienced by the majority of the population were supplemented by the local growth of food crops and the gathering of food from the bush. Of the 79 children (1%) under the age of five years who died in 2004, the majority (24%) died of HIV-related diseases, in addition to deaths caused by diarrhoea, respiratory infections, and malnutrition. Child mortality was found to be associated with the reporting of “unknown” for several indicators of food security. Additionally, expecting the food availability of the household in the coming year to be less than that of the current year (that is, the prediction of future household food insecurity) was significantly associated with an increased risk of under-five child mortality compared to the expectation of the same amount of food the following year (adjusted odds ratio (OR) 2.0), and with a greatly increased risk of mortality compared to the prediction of more food (future household food security) (adjusted OR 4.4). The latter association was age-specific to infants under the age of one year (adjusted OR 5.6) and cause-specific to HIV deaths (adjusted OR 5.9). Conclusions: Following a significant trend in this study in the rural north-east of South Africa, future household food security was inversely related to, and hence protective over, childhood mortality in 2004, even after controlling for confounding factors. Further research on the associations between household food security and under-five child mortality, conducted following the development of a standard nation-wide food security measurement tool specific to South African household conditions, would confirm household food insecurity as a significant risk factor for under-five child mortality and, consequently, as a target for future policies in the reduction of child mortality in this country.

Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional é a garantia, a todos, de condições de acesso a alimentos básicos de qualidade, em quantidade suficiente, de modo permanente e sem comprometer outras necessidades essenciais, e o desrespeito a este direito indica a insegurança alimentar. Para caracterizar a situação de segurança alimentar das famílias e o estado nutricional de crianças menores de 5 anos de idade de creches no município de Ribeirão Preto-SP desenvolveu-se um estudo transversal e descritivo, com 344 crianças e suas famílias. A segurança alimentar das famílias foi avaliada com a Escala Brasileira de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (EBIA) e as famílias classificadas em situação de Segurança Alimentar (SA) e Insegurança Alimentar Leve (IAL), Moderada (IAM) e Grave (IAG). Aplicou-se uma entrevista com os pais para coleta de variáveis sócio-econômicas e demográficas com um questionário estruturado. A antropometria foi realizada nas creches e os índices Peso/Idade (P/I), Peso/Estatura (P/E), Estatura/Idade (E/I) e IMC/Idade (IMC/I) calculados segundo padrão da Organização Mundial da Saúde (2006). Para a classificação do estado nutricional adotou-se os pontos de corte do SISVAN (Ministério da Saúde). Foram calculadas medidas de prevalências e verificou-se associação entre as variáveis do estudo pelo teste qui-quadrado. Identificou-se que a SA estava presente em 45,7% das famílias, enquanto que a IAL, IAM e IAG foram encontradas em 42,4%, 7,8% e 4,1% das famílias, respectivamente. A análise dos dados sócio-econômicos apontou maior proporção de mães com ensino fundamental e de pais que não moram com a família entre aquelas com IA. Verificou-se proporção maior de residência inacabada, menor número de cômodos, maior número de moradores no domicílio, vinculo com programas sociais e menor renda per capita entre as famílias em situação de IA (p<0,05). Não se observou diferenças entre as prevalências de desvios nutricionais e a condição de SA das famílias. Entretanto, observou-se prevalência de 9,3% de baixa estatura, 2,3% de baixo peso pelo índice P/I e 1,5% de magreza segundo P/E e IMC/I. O excesso de peso segundo P/I foi encontrado em 11,0% das crianças. Os índices IMC/I e P/E indicaram prevalências de 8,7% e 7,3% de crianças acima de +2 escoreZ, 2,9% e 2,3% acima de +3 escoreZ, respectivamente. A situação de insegurança alimentar é prevalente na população estudada, sobretudo entre as famílias com pior condição socioeconômica. Foi observado que o excesso de peso é o principal problema nutricional nesta população infantil. Novos estudos são necessários para o melhor conhecimento das características que condicionam a insegurança alimentar e o estado nutricional desta população visando a elaboração de estratégias de enfrentamento desta situação. / Food and Nutritional Security is the assurance of everyone´s right to regular and permanent acess to food in sufficient amounts, permanently and without endangering other essential needs. Disregard to such rights would indicate food security. In order to characterize a situation of food insecurity in families and the nutritional status of under 5-year-old 344 children enrolled in day care center in Ribeirão Preto city and their families was developed on descriptive and cross-section study. The food security of each family was assessed with the Brazilian Food Security Scale Escala Brasileira de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (EBIA) and the families were rated according to their situation: food security and mild, moderate and severe food insecurity. Interviews with the parents was performed to collect socioeconomic and demographic variables with a structured questionnaire. The childrens weight and heigth were taken and the indicators of weight-for-age (WAZ), weight-for-height (WHZ), height-for-age (HAZ) and body mass index-age (BMZ) was defined to the 2006 WHO child growth tandards, and the classification of the nutritional status were adopted the cut-off scores of SISVAN. The prevalence values were calculated and an association between the variables of the study was evaluated by according to the chi-quadrate test. Prevalence of food security was 45.7%, and mild, moderate and severe food insecurity were found in 42.4%, 7.8% and 4.1% households. Socioeconomic analysis showed a higher frequence of low maternal education and fathers who do not live with their families among household food insecurity. There was a higher proportion of unfinished residence, fewer rooms, a larger number of household members, social programs link and with lower per capita income among families in IA (p <0.05). However, the prevalence of 9.3% of stunting (HAZ), 2.3% of underweight (WAZ) and 1.5% of wasting to WHZ and BMZ was observed. Overweight according to WAZ was found in 11.0%. The BMZ and WHZ indicated the prevalence of 8.7% and 7.3% overweight and 2.9% and 2.3% children of obesity. The situation of food insecurity is prevalent in this population, especially among families with lower socioeconomic status. We found that excess weight is the main nutritional problem in this infant population. Further studies are necessary to improve knowledge of the characteristics that govern food insecurity and the nutritional status of this population, with the goal of elaborating coping strategies for such a situation.

Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional é a garantia, a todos, de condições de acesso a alimentos básicos de qualidade, em quantidade suficiente, de modo permanente e sem comprometer outras necessidades essenciais, e o desrespeito a este direito indica a insegurança alimentar. Para caracterizar a situação de segurança alimentar das famílias e o estado nutricional de crianças menores de 5 anos de idade de creches no município de Ribeirão Preto-SP desenvolveu-se um estudo transversal e descritivo, com 344 crianças e suas famílias. A segurança alimentar das famílias foi avaliada com a Escala Brasileira de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (EBIA) e as famílias classificadas em situação de Segurança Alimentar (SA) e Insegurança Alimentar Leve (IAL), Moderada (IAM) e Grave (IAG). Aplicou-se uma entrevista com os pais para coleta de variáveis sócio-econômicas e demográficas com um questionário estruturado. A antropometria foi realizada nas creches e os índices Peso/Idade (P/I), Peso/Estatura (P/E), Estatura/Idade (E/I) e IMC/Idade (IMC/I) calculados segundo padrão da Organização Mundial da Saúde (2006). Para a classificação do estado nutricional adotou-se os pontos de corte do SISVAN (Ministério da Saúde). Foram calculadas medidas de prevalências e verificou-se associação entre as variáveis do estudo pelo teste qui-quadrado. Identificou-se que a SA estava presente em 45,7% das famílias, enquanto que a IAL, IAM e IAG foram encontradas em 42,4%, 7,8% e 4,1% das famílias, respectivamente. A análise dos dados sócio-econômicos apontou maior proporção de mães com ensino fundamental e de pais que não moram com a família entre aquelas com IA. Verificou-se proporção maior de residência inacabada, menor número de cômodos, maior número de moradores no domicílio, vinculo com programas sociais e menor renda per capita entre as famílias em situação de IA (p<0,05). Não se observou diferenças entre as prevalências de desvios nutricionais e a condição de SA das famílias. Entretanto, observou-se prevalência de 9,3% de baixa estatura, 2,3% de baixo peso pelo índice P/I e 1,5% de magreza segundo P/E e IMC/I. O excesso de peso segundo P/I foi encontrado em 11,0% das crianças. Os índices IMC/I e P/E indicaram prevalências de 8,7% e 7,3% de crianças acima de +2 escoreZ, 2,9% e 2,3% acima de +3 escoreZ, respectivamente. A situação de insegurança alimentar é prevalente na população estudada, sobretudo entre as famílias com pior condição socioeconômica. Foi observado que o excesso de peso é o principal problema nutricional nesta população infantil. Novos estudos são necessários para o melhor conhecimento das características que condicionam a insegurança alimentar e o estado nutricional desta população visando a elaboração de estratégias de enfrentamento desta situação. / Food and Nutritional Security is the assurance of everyone´s right to regular and permanent acess to food in sufficient amounts, permanently and without endangering other essential needs. Disregard to such rights would indicate food security. In order to characterize a situation of food insecurity in families and the nutritional status of under 5-year-old 344 children enrolled in day care center in Ribeirão Preto city and their families was developed on descriptive and cross-section study. The food security of each family was assessed with the Brazilian Food Security Scale Escala Brasileira de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (EBIA) and the families were rated according to their situation: food security and mild, moderate and severe food insecurity. Interviews with the parents was performed to collect socioeconomic and demographic variables with a structured questionnaire. The childrens weight and heigth were taken and the indicators of weight-for-age (WAZ), weight-for-height (WHZ), height-for-age (HAZ) and body mass index-age (BMZ) was defined to the 2006 WHO child growth tandards, and the classification of the nutritional status were adopted the cut-off scores of SISVAN. The prevalence values were calculated and an association between the variables of the study was evaluated by according to the chi-quadrate test. Prevalence of food security was 45.7%, and mild, moderate and severe food insecurity were found in 42.4%, 7.8% and 4.1% households. Socioeconomic analysis showed a higher frequence of low maternal education and fathers who do not live with their families among household food insecurity. There was a higher proportion of unfinished residence, fewer rooms, a larger number of household members, social programs link and with lower per capita income among families in IA (p <0.05). However, the prevalence of 9.3% of stunting (HAZ), 2.3% of underweight (WAZ) and 1.5% of wasting to WHZ and BMZ was observed. Overweight according to WAZ was found in 11.0%. The BMZ and WHZ indicated the prevalence of 8.7% and 7.3% overweight and 2.9% and 2.3% children of obesity. The situation of food insecurity is prevalent in this population, especially among families with lower socioeconomic status. We found that excess weight is the main nutritional problem in this infant population. Further studies are necessary to improve knowledge of the characteristics that govern food insecurity and the nutritional status of this population, with the goal of elaborating coping strategies for such a situation.

This study aims to examine how the migration experience influences newcomer mothers’ young child feeding and care practices and their children’s overall health. The thesis comprises three separate manuscripts, each of which examines one of the three intermediate determinants of the nutritional status of young children (UNICEF 1990): access to healthcare, household food insecurity, and child feeding and care practices. The research was conducted in Toronto’s Jane-Finch neighbourhood, a suburban neighbourhood home to a high density of newcomers. Thirty-two participants (16 Sri Lankan Tamil and 16 Latin American) who had migrated to Canada within the past five years as refugee claimants or family sponsored immigrants participated in the study. Data collection consisted of semi-structured interviews with women from low-income households who had a child between the ages of 1 and 5 years. Spanish and Tamil speaking interviewers interviewed each participant two or three times. Data was analyzed using a mid-level approach in which broad analytical themes are determined prior to analysis and specific themes were then generated based on participants’ perspectives and are grounded in the data. The first manuscript examines newcomer mothers’ experiences accessing physicians for their children and identifies the major gaps between mothers’ expectations and their actual experiences that lead to barriers in communication and overall patient dissatisfaction. The second manuscript demonstrates that mothers’ past experiences with food insecurity affect two aspects of the construct of food insecurity: its managed aspect and its temporal nature. This finding has implications for the measurement of food insecurity in newcomer populations. The third manuscript reveals that newcomer mothers are exposed to several parallel and often conflicting systems of knowledge concerning health and nutrition for their children, and that their utilization of Canada’s Food Guide is impeded by its failure to acknowledge alternate parallel knowledge systems. These findings can be applied to the development of social and health policy aimed at improving cultural competency in healthcare and nutrition education and at ameliorating the income constraints leading to household food insecurity.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Geography)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / South Africa’s population is more than 60% urbanised. Although food poverty has historically been associated with rural communities, this is no longer the case. With sustained urbanisation, food insecurity is now being experienced in the urban areas as well. The aim of this study was therefore to assess household food security levels and determinants, and to examine household food security coping strategies in Brazzaville informal settlement, Pretoria. The study adopted a quantitative approach which involved the collection of information through a standardised household questionnaire. A statistically representative sample of 95 households participated in the study. Household questionnaires were used to collect information on household demographics, income and expenditure statistics, poverty data as well as household food access issues. In terms of data analysis, the survey used three measures of household food insecurity: a) the Household Food Insecurity Access Prevalence Indicator (HFIAP); b) the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS); and c) the Months of Adequate Household Food Provisioning (MAHFP) measurements of household food access. The survey results indicate that 29.5% of households in Brazzaville informal settlement were food secure and 70.5% food insecure. Contrary to conventional wisdom of female-headed households being the most food insecure, results of this study show that maleheaded households were the most food insecure. In addition, households with low incomes, low level of education, and high unemployment were also likely to be food insecure. The results of the regression analysis suggest that gender, household income, and employment influences household food security. The probability of food security decreases if household is headed by a female, because females can adopt multiple coping strategies. The study concludes that food insecurity coping strategies vary significantly from one household to another according to their expenses, objectives and constrains. Keywords: Household food insecurity, urbanisation, livelihood, Brazzaville informal settlement, coping strategies. / National Research Foundation (NRF)

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / O primeiro objetivo da Tese consistiu na identificação e caracterização dos instrumentos de aferição epidemiológicos que vêm sendo propostos para a abordagem de IA domiciliar, bem como na síntese de suas propriedades psicométricas. Para tal, realizou-se busca sistemática em três bases de dados eletrônicas: MEDLINE, LILACS e SciELO. Não houve delimitação do período de publicação. Os resultados são apresentados no artigo intitulado Household food insecurity: a systematic review of the measuring instruments used in epidemiological studies. Foram identificados 24 instrumentos, todos breves e de fácil aplicação. A maioria foi desenvolvida nos Estados Unidos. O instrumento HFSSM apresentou o maior número de estudos de utilização e psicométricos, podendo ser recomendado sem hesitação. O segundo e principal objetivo desta Tese foi avaliar se a ocorrência de violência psicológica e física entre parceiros íntimos pode ser considerada um fator de risco para a ocorrência de Insegurança Alimentar (IA) domiciliar. As informações que subjazem a pesquisa originaram-se de um inquérito domiciliar realizado no Distrito de Campos Elíseos, Município de Duque de Caxias, entre abril a novembro de 2010. A população de estudo foi selecionada por meio de amostragem por conglomerados em três estágios (setor censitário, domicílio, indivíduo) com técnicas de amostragem inversa para a seleção dos domicílios. A amostra do estudo incluiu 849 mulheres que no período da entrevista relataram possuir algum relacionamento amoroso nos 12 meses anteriores. As informações foram obtidas por meio de entrevista utilizando-se um questionário estruturado, contendo instrumentos previamente validados, como a Revised Conflict Tatics Scales (CTS2) para a mensuração das violências e a Escala Brasileira de Insegurança Alimentar (EBIA) para a IA domiciliar. Utilizou-se a análise de caminhos (Path Analysis) na análise de dados o que permitiu explorar as relações entre as violências, entre estas e o Transtorno Mental Comum (TMC), este último e a IA, bem como as relações mais distais do modelo teórico. Os resultados são apresentados no artigo intitulado Violência entre parceiros íntimos, transtornos mentais comuns e insegurança alimentar: modelagem de equações estruturais. A hipótese central deste estudo foi corroborada, na medida em que tanto a violência psicológica, como a violência física se mostraram importantes fatores de risco para a IA, via a ocorrência de TMC. Contrariamente ao esperado, notou-se um maior efeito da violência psicológica do que da violência física na ocorrência do desfecho. Espera-se que a divulgação dos resultados desta Tese auxilie os profissionais e gestores na área de segurança alimentar e nutricional, bem como pesquisadores da área na tomada de decisões em relação ao instrumento de aferição a ser utilizado para a caracterização das situações e ampliem o olhar sobre o problema, incorporando outros fatores de risco, tais como as violências entre parceiros íntimos, aqueles estritamente econômicos, habitualmente considerados no debate sobre os determinantes e estratégias de enfrentamento da IA. / The first goal of the Thesis that consisted of identifying and characterizing the epidemiological measurement instruments that have been proposed for addressing HFI and synthesis of its psychometric properties. To this end, we performed a systematic search of three electronic databases: MEDLINE, LILACS and SciELO. There was no definition of the publication period. The results are presented in the article entitled "Household food insecurity: a systematic review of the measuring instruments used in epidemiological studies". Twenty-four instruments were identified; all brief and of easy application. The majority were devised in the United States. The HFSSM instrument had the largest number of use studies and psychometric and can be recommended without hesitation. The second and main objective of this Thesis was to evaluate the occurrence of physical intimate partner violence (IPV) of psychological type and can be considered a risk factor for the occurrence of household food insecurity (HFI). The information underlying the research originated from a household survey conducted in the District of Campos Elíseos, in the city of Duque de Caxias, between April and November 2010. The study population was selected using cluster sampling in three stages (census tract, household, individual) with inverse sampling techniques to the selection of households. The study sample included 849 women (82.03% of the interviews for the study background) than during the interview reported having a romantic relationship in the last 12 months. Information was obtained through interviews using a structured questionnaire containing previously validated instruments such as the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) to measure the IPV and Brazilian Food Insecurity Scale (EBIA) for HFI. The results are presented in the article titled "Intimate partner violence, common mental disorders and food insecurity: a survey- based structural equation modeling analysis". The central hypothesis of this study was corroborated, and IPV psychological presented both as direct kick in the occurrence of HFI effect, while the physical type of IPV only had indirect effect via CMD . It is hoped that the dissemination of the results of this thesis assists professionals and managers in the area of food security as well as researchers in the field in making decisions regarding the measurement instrument to be used for the characterization of situations and broaden the look about the problem, incorporating other risk factors such as intimate partner violence, strictly economic ones usually considered in the debate on the determinants and coping strategies of food insecurity.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / O primeiro objetivo da Tese consistiu na identificação e caracterização dos instrumentos de aferição epidemiológicos que vêm sendo propostos para a abordagem de IA domiciliar, bem como na síntese de suas propriedades psicométricas. Para tal, realizou-se busca sistemática em três bases de dados eletrônicas: MEDLINE, LILACS e SciELO. Não houve delimitação do período de publicação. Os resultados são apresentados no artigo intitulado Household food insecurity: a systematic review of the measuring instruments used in epidemiological studies. Foram identificados 24 instrumentos, todos breves e de fácil aplicação. A maioria foi desenvolvida nos Estados Unidos. O instrumento HFSSM apresentou o maior número de estudos de utilização e psicométricos, podendo ser recomendado sem hesitação. O segundo e principal objetivo desta Tese foi avaliar se a ocorrência de violência psicológica e física entre parceiros íntimos pode ser considerada um fator de risco para a ocorrência de Insegurança Alimentar (IA) domiciliar. As informações que subjazem a pesquisa originaram-se de um inquérito domiciliar realizado no Distrito de Campos Elíseos, Município de Duque de Caxias, entre abril a novembro de 2010. A população de estudo foi selecionada por meio de amostragem por conglomerados em três estágios (setor censitário, domicílio, indivíduo) com técnicas de amostragem inversa para a seleção dos domicílios. A amostra do estudo incluiu 849 mulheres que no período da entrevista relataram possuir algum relacionamento amoroso nos 12 meses anteriores. As informações foram obtidas por meio de entrevista utilizando-se um questionário estruturado, contendo instrumentos previamente validados, como a Revised Conflict Tatics Scales (CTS2) para a mensuração das violências e a Escala Brasileira de Insegurança Alimentar (EBIA) para a IA domiciliar. Utilizou-se a análise de caminhos (Path Analysis) na análise de dados o que permitiu explorar as relações entre as violências, entre estas e o Transtorno Mental Comum (TMC), este último e a IA, bem como as relações mais distais do modelo teórico. Os resultados são apresentados no artigo intitulado Violência entre parceiros íntimos, transtornos mentais comuns e insegurança alimentar: modelagem de equações estruturais. A hipótese central deste estudo foi corroborada, na medida em que tanto a violência psicológica, como a violência física se mostraram importantes fatores de risco para a IA, via a ocorrência de TMC. Contrariamente ao esperado, notou-se um maior efeito da violência psicológica do que da violência física na ocorrência do desfecho. Espera-se que a divulgação dos resultados desta Tese auxilie os profissionais e gestores na área de segurança alimentar e nutricional, bem como pesquisadores da área na tomada de decisões em relação ao instrumento de aferição a ser utilizado para a caracterização das situações e ampliem o olhar sobre o problema, incorporando outros fatores de risco, tais como as violências entre parceiros íntimos, aqueles estritamente econômicos, habitualmente considerados no debate sobre os determinantes e estratégias de enfrentamento da IA. / The first goal of the Thesis that consisted of identifying and characterizing the epidemiological measurement instruments that have been proposed for addressing HFI and synthesis of its psychometric properties. To this end, we performed a systematic search of three electronic databases: MEDLINE, LILACS and SciELO. There was no definition of the publication period. The results are presented in the article entitled "Household food insecurity: a systematic review of the measuring instruments used in epidemiological studies". Twenty-four instruments were identified; all brief and of easy application. The majority were devised in the United States. The HFSSM instrument had the largest number of use studies and psychometric and can be recommended without hesitation. The second and main objective of this Thesis was to evaluate the occurrence of physical intimate partner violence (IPV) of psychological type and can be considered a risk factor for the occurrence of household food insecurity (HFI). The information underlying the research originated from a household survey conducted in the District of Campos Elíseos, in the city of Duque de Caxias, between April and November 2010. The study population was selected using cluster sampling in three stages (census tract, household, individual) with inverse sampling techniques to the selection of households. The study sample included 849 women (82.03% of the interviews for the study background) than during the interview reported having a romantic relationship in the last 12 months. Information was obtained through interviews using a structured questionnaire containing previously validated instruments such as the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) to measure the IPV and Brazilian Food Insecurity Scale (EBIA) for HFI. The results are presented in the article titled "Intimate partner violence, common mental disorders and food insecurity: a survey- based structural equation modeling analysis". The central hypothesis of this study was corroborated, and IPV psychological presented both as direct kick in the occurrence of HFI effect, while the physical type of IPV only had indirect effect via CMD . It is hoped that the dissemination of the results of this thesis assists professionals and managers in the area of food security as well as researchers in the field in making decisions regarding the measurement instrument to be used for the characterization of situations and broaden the look about the problem, incorporating other risk factors such as intimate partner violence, strictly economic ones usually considered in the debate on the determinants and coping strategies of food insecurity.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Agricultural Economics )) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / Regardless of the strategies adopted globally and nationwide to fight food insecurity within communities, particularly in the rural context, poverty becomes a major constituent which translates to most rural households experiencing food insecurity shocks. Given the high unemployment rate in South Africa which triggers several household’s vulnerability to food insecurity, the country has diverse natural resources which include indigenous plants such as Indigenous Leafy Vegetables (ILVs), which can be used as food and for business purposes by its residents. Irrespective of the diversity of ILVs in South Africa, there is a significant decline in the production and consumption of ILVs particularly in rural areas where these vegetables are mostly available. In addition, production and consumption of ILVs may not only address food insecurity but these vegetables may benefit households through the income obtained from their sales. The income generated from sales of ILVs may therefore assist towards improving and sustaining rural livelihood needs. Given this background information, the study aimed at assessing ILV production for income generation and food security among rural households in the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) of South Africa. The study was conducted within the three district municipalities of the ECP which were selected because statistics report these districts to be the most affected areas by poverty within the province. These districts are OR Tambo District Municipality (ORTDM), Alfred Nzo District Municipality (ANDM) and Joe Gqabi District Municipality (JGDM). Multistage and proportional random sampling procedures were employed to select households which could participate in the study. Thus, 407 households within these three (3) districts municipalities were used for the purposes of the study. The study also included interviewing role players within the ILV production value chain, thus a snowball sampling procedure was used to select role players. Sixteen hawkers and three input suppliers were interviewed from the three district municipalities. In addition, from the 407 households that were interviewed, 260 households from the three district municipalities reported to be producers of ILVs. A structured questionnaire was therefore used to collect pertaining data allied in achieving the aim of the study. The collected data was captured using Excel 2016, after data cleaning, it was then exported to Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 for analysis. Numerous analytical models were used from SPSS 25. For instance, to identify and describe socio-economic characteristics of households, to assess the most produced ILVs from the study areas and to identify role players within the ILV production value chain, descriptive statistics in a form of means, percentages, frequencies, and standard deviation was used. To determine factors which influence production of ILVs, a Binary Logistic Regression Model was used. A Multinomial Logistic Regression model was used to determine factors which influence different uses of ILVs by households and to determine factors influencing food security status among households. A gross margin analysis was used to estimate viability from each ILV produced, harvested and sold, while Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) was used to measure food security status among households. Lastly, a correlation matrix was also used to determine the relationship between the role players and their functions among the ILV production value chain. Based on the results, the study therefore concluded that, from the three district municipalities used in the study, there are various ILVs growing naturally and produced. The production of ILVs from these municipalities is habituated by socio economic characteristics of households, wherein households use ILVs for various purposes which include these vegetables as source of food, medicine and livestock feed. The use of ILVs among households is influenced by socio-economic characteristics and seasonal availability of ILVs in ORTDM, while in ANDM and JGDM, the use of ILVs by households is conditioned by socio-economic characteristics of households, knowledge/ awareness related to nutrition and health benefits of ILVs and seasonal production of ILVs. Furthermore, this research concludes that, ILVs have a potential of diversifying diets and addressing food insecurity problems within rural parts of the three districts. Given the positive gross margins from the three districts, production and selling of ILVs has a potential to contribute to rural household income. Lastly, the study concludes that, the ILV production value chain system lacks governmental support in the form of institutional engagement since there is no evidence of extension officer support from these three district municipalities concerning ILVs production. To this end, the study recommends that, policy makers should further establish inclusion of ILVs in both farming and food systems. Also, government and related institutions which focus on sustainable rural development must intervene in promoting production of ILVs particularly within rural contexts since production of these vegetables may alleviate poverty through job creation, addressing food insecurity and income generation. Thus, a successful intervention of government and policy makers in ILV production would have a potential of translating to sustainable rural livelihoods / National Research Foundation (NRF)

Thesis (Ph.D. Agricultural (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / Regardless of the various measures implemented by the South African government to curb food insecurity, majority of rural households are still experiencing food insecurity at the household level. This could be because of the high unemployment rate that the rural households are experiencing, especially in the Limpopo Province. Despite rural household members exerting frantic efforts to acquire education, most of them still find it difficult to secure jobs, which results in them depending on social grants for a living. Still, social grant money alone is not enough to meet their entire families’ needs, including food acquisition. The aim of the study was to analyse food security looking at four dimensions, namely, food availability, access, utilisation, and stability among rural households of Capricorn and Mopani Districts in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Only two district municipalities in the Limpopo Province, namely, Mopani and Capricorn Districts, were chosen as areas of study. The two district municipalities were chosen because, previous studies and reviews reported that these municipalities are the most affected districts by food insecurity shocks in the Limpopo Province. The study used a cross-sectional survey, where a Multistage sampling procedure was employed. The villages were selected based on probability proportionate to size. The study considered a total of 346 rural households, comprising 173 rural households in each district municipality. A structured questionnaire was used as an instrument to collect data from rural households in the study area. In addition, the collected data was captured using Excel 16. Thereafter, the data was exported to SPSS Version 27 for analysis. Furthermore, to profile the socio-economic characteristics of households, assess food consumption patterns and identify the strategies employed to enhance household food security, descriptive statistics was used. To determine the food security status of rural households in the study areas, the four dimensions of food security were analysed separately. For instance, food availability was analysed using descriptive statistics whereas food accessibility was analysed using Household Food Insecurity Access Scale [HFIAS]. The HFIAS was also used to identify the food security status while Household Dietary Diversity Score [HDDS] was used to measure food utilisation. To measure food stability, a Likert Scale [LS] and descriptive statistics were used. Multiple Linear Regression Models [MRM] were used to determine the factors that influenced rural households’ food security status. On the other hand, the Multinomial Logistic Regression Model [MLRM] was used to examine the determinants of food security among rural households of Capricorn and Mopani district municipalities. The descriptive results established that most rural households from both Mopani District Municipality [MDM] and Capricorn District Municipality [CDM] consume different food groups. In this regard, a minority of rural households are classified as dietary diverse whereas a majority of rural households are still characterised as less dietary diverse due to the limited consumption of different food groups. This reveals that these households range from less food secure to moderate food secure, as illustrated by the food security results. Moreover, the descriptive results also indicated that a majority of rural households in MDM are classified as severely food insecure and that food stability was the component contributing to these households being severely food insecure. As for CDM rural households, the results showed that a majority of these rural households were moderately food insecure with food availability and food stability being the contributing component at CDM. The Multiple linear Regression Model [MRM] results in MDM revealed that the age of the household head, remittances, and access to credit positively influenced food security status. On the other hand, the Multinomial Logistic Regression Model [MLRM] results in MDM revealed that the age of household head, household income greater than R1000, household income between R1099 to R1999, household income between R4000 to R4999, income from salary and access to credit, negatively influence food insecurity status. The Multiple Linear Regression Model confirmed that the male headed households, age of household head, wages, employment status and household income negatively influence food security status in CDM. On the contrary, MLRM results revealed that gender of household head, income from wages, income from salary, old age pension grant, child support grant, household income above R1000 and access to credit for borrowing money positively influenced the food security status of rural households in CDM. In light of this, the study recommends that health practitioners should educate rural households about healthy eating habits and that having a variety of nutritious food type may increase food security. The Department of Agriculture should advise rural households to participate primarily in subsistence farming and that they should focus their agriculture on crops and livestock. This will enable them to enjoy diverse and balanced diets. In addition, the government should empower rural households to participate in development programmes. This may assist households to improve their livelihoods and may also lead to diverse sources of income, which may enhance food security. Furthermore, the government can further assist rural households by providing production inputs (such as seeds/seedlings, fertilizers, and water for irrigation), which may promote food availability, utilisation and accessibility. / NRF-DAAD

This study has assessed the welfare shocks and household food Insecurity in Ephraim Mogale and Greater Tubatse municipalities of Sekhukhune district, Limpopo Province in South Africa. The study identified shocks affecting livelihood at household level and also analysed the food insecurity status of households. The study is restricted only to two local municipalities out of five municipalities in Sekhukhune district. Structured questionnaire was administered for data collection. A total of 200 households were involved in the study with 100 households selected from each municipality. Within each municipality several villages were selected for survey through stratified random sampling selection. Data was collected between 10th July and 22nd September 2014. All response from the questionnaires was tabulated and processed with the use of statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) programme. Three analytical tools were used to achieve the objectives of the study such as, Descriptive statistics, Household Food Insecurity Assessment Scale (HFIAS) and Linear regression model. Majority of households experience different form of shocks in their households. Increase in food prices, high level of livestock disease, drought, death of a household member and chronic illness such as Diabetes, HIV/AIDS and Tuberculosis are the most important shocks experienced. Approximately 22.2% of households were characterized as being food secure, 32.2% as mildly food insecure, 34.2% as moderately food insecure while 11.4% are severely food insecure. The main determinants of food security from the sample survey were education, unskilled wage labour, grants, pension and disability funds whereby high-level of livestock diseases, illness or accidental loss, death of a household member tends to expose households to higher risk of food insecurity. Policy recommendations are made on promoting education in the rural areas. High priority should be given to industrialization in the district which will in turn boost the rate of employment and also add to the economic growth. Policy measures should be made in supporting people and organizations on how to respond to shocks and stresses experienced in their communities. / Centre for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Agriculture)