The University of Arizona Main Campus is located in the city of Tucson, Arizona. A place that confronts high air temperatures and extreme solar radiation almost all year around. Currently, more than 38,000 students are enrolled as full-time facing the extreme climate conditions of heat. Thousands of students walk from one place to another experiencing uncomfortable walks causing them heat stress. Campus infrastructure is not capable to interact with the weather conditions of Tucson. The lack of shaded paths, materials with high emissivity of heat, nonnative vegetation, among other factors, make the walks unpleasant. This challenge affects people's health and consecutively the performance of cooling systems once the people enter to buildings overheated. Outdoor human thermal comfort in arid and desert areas is a relevant topic that carries implications and benefits on people and buildings performance. The amount and intensity of activities within individuals affects the level of comfort.

Este projeto de pesquisa de mestrado buscou identificar os impactos das propriedades da superfície urbana sobre as condições meteorológicas da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo (RMSP), buscando um melhor entendimento dos mesmos para que atividades de planejamento urbano possam ser melhor organizadas. O trabalho utilizou como principais ferramentas produtos de sensoriamento remoto, para definir algumas propriedades da superfície urbana, medidas em superfície de variáveis meteorológicas, para determinação de índices de conforto humano, e a modelagem numérica da atmosfera, para identificação de condições atmosféricas e construção de cenários úteis ao planejamento urbano. Com o uso de imagens de satélite, foram criados arquivos de ocupação do solo e da fração vegetada na área urbana da RMSP em altíssima resolução (20 m). Após a definição das propriedades da superfície, valores medidos pela CETESB de temperatura e umidade relativa foram associados a padrões de ocupação urbana. Verificou-se que as regiões de São Caetano do Sul e do Parque D. Pedro II foram as que apresentaram o maior número de casos de desconforto por calor moderado. Regiões como São Miguel Paulista e Ibirapuera mostraram-se mais confortáveis. Na maior parte dos casos, as regiões apresentaram um nível agradável a levemente quente, seguidos pela condição agradável a levemente fresca. Após a análise diagnóstica, foram construídos cenários contemplando atividades de planejamento urbano em busca da melhoria das condições de conforto térmico humano. Os experimentos realizados indicam que os fluxos turbulentos em superfície são consideravelmente modificados e que a temperatura pode sofrer uma diminuição gradativa até cerca de 1,5 ºC com a substituição de 50% da superfície urbana por vegetação, chegando a mais de 2,2 ºC quando esta substituição é completa. O perfil de temperatura potencial na Camada Limite Planetária também foi consideravelmente modificado com o aumento da porção vegetada no domímio modelado. / This master\'s research project has the goal of indentifying the impacts of urban surface properties over the meteorological conditions of the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo (MASP), in order to obtain a better understanding of them and to provide means of better organized urban planning activities. The work was made by using as principal tools, remote sensing derived products, in order to define some surface properties, surface measurements of atmospheric variables, in order to obtain human thermal comfort indexes, and numerical modeling of the atmosphere, in order to identify atmospheric conditions and simulate useful scenaries for urban planning. By using sattelite images, land use and vegetated fraction files were created over the MASP with very high resolution (20 m). Afterwards, temperature and relative humidity measured by CETESB were associated to urban land use patterns. It was verified that regions like São Caetano do Sul and Parque D. Pedro II are more likely to have greater discomfort sensation by moderate heat. Regions like São Miguel Paulista and Ibirapuera were identified to be more confortable. In the majority of cases, the regions presented a pleasant to lightly warm, followed by pleasant to lightly fresh conditions. After the definition of the surface properties, scenarios were built comprehending urban planning activities, looking for the improvement of human thermal comfort conditions. The experiments showed that the surface turbulent fluxes are considerably changed and that temperature was gradualy reduced in up to 1,5 ºC with the replacement of 50% of the urban surface by vegetation, reaching more than 2,2 ºC when this replacement was complete. The potential temperature profile inside the Planetary Boundary Layer was also considerably modified following the increase of vegetated area in the modeled domain.

The urban landscape-heat-health relationship was explored using a model of human thermal comfort (as energy budget) modified to incorporate varying urban landscape. Census Tract-level energy budget was modelled in Toronto during four extreme heat events. Energy budgets (~+80 W m-2) and heat-related ambulance calls (~+10%) increased during heat events and were positively correlated, albeit with some event-to-event fluctuation in relationship strength. Heat-related calls were negatively correlated to canopy cover. “Cooling” design strategies applied to two high-energy budget Census Tracts nearly neutralized (~–25 W m-2) thermal comfort and increased canopy cover (500–600%), resulting in an estimated 40–50% reduction in heat-related ambulance calls. These findings advance current understanding of the urban landscape-heat-health relationship and suggest straightforward design strategies to positively influence urban heat-health. This new high-throughput, Census Tract-level thermal comfort modelling methodology incorporates the complexities of the urban landscape has relevance to landscape architecture, urban design, and public health.

abstract: I present the results of studies from two historically separate fields of research: heat related illness and human thermal comfort adaptation. My research objectives were: (a) to analyze the relationships between climate and heat related morbidity in Phoenix, Arizona and Chicago, Illinois; (b) explore possible linkages of human thermal comfort adaptation to heat-related illness; and (c) show possible benefits of collaboration between the two fields of research. Previous climate and mortality studies discovered regional patterns in summertime mortality in North America: lower in hot, southern cities compared to more temperate cities. I examined heat related emergency (911) dispatches from these two geographically and climatically different cities. I analyzed with local weather conditions with 911 dispatches identified by responders as "heat" related from 2001 to 2006 in Phoenix and 2003 through 2006 in Chicago. Both cities experienced a rapid rise in heat-related dispatches with increasing temperature and heat index, but at higher thresholds in Phoenix. Overall, Phoenix had almost two and half times more heat-related dispatches than Chicago. However, Phoenix did not experience the large spikes of heat-related dispatches that occurred in Chicago. These findings suggest a resilience to heat-related illness that may be linked to acclimatization in Phoenix. I also present results from a survey based outdoor human thermal comfort field study in Phoenix to assess levels of local acclimatization. Previous research in outdoor human thermal comfort in hot humid and temperate climates used similar survey-based methodologies and found higher levels of thermal comfort (adaptation to heat) that in warmer climates than in cooler climates. The study presented in this dissertation found outdoor thermal comfort thresholds and heat tolerance levels in Phoenix were higher than previous studies from temperate climates more similar to Chicago. These differences were then compared to the differences in weather conditions associated with heat-related dispatches. The higher comfort thresholds in Phoenix were similar in scale to the climate differences associated with the upsurge in heat-related dispatches in Phoenix and Chicago. This suggests a link between heat related illness and acclimatization, and illustrates potential for collaboration in research between the two fields. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Geological Sciences 2012

Este projeto de pesquisa de mestrado buscou identificar os impactos das propriedades da superfície urbana sobre as condições meteorológicas da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo (RMSP), buscando um melhor entendimento dos mesmos para que atividades de planejamento urbano possam ser melhor organizadas. O trabalho utilizou como principais ferramentas produtos de sensoriamento remoto, para definir algumas propriedades da superfície urbana, medidas em superfície de variáveis meteorológicas, para determinação de índices de conforto humano, e a modelagem numérica da atmosfera, para identificação de condições atmosféricas e construção de cenários úteis ao planejamento urbano. Com o uso de imagens de satélite, foram criados arquivos de ocupação do solo e da fração vegetada na área urbana da RMSP em altíssima resolução (20 m). Após a definição das propriedades da superfície, valores medidos pela CETESB de temperatura e umidade relativa foram associados a padrões de ocupação urbana. Verificou-se que as regiões de São Caetano do Sul e do Parque D. Pedro II foram as que apresentaram o maior número de casos de desconforto por calor moderado. Regiões como São Miguel Paulista e Ibirapuera mostraram-se mais confortáveis. Na maior parte dos casos, as regiões apresentaram um nível agradável a levemente quente, seguidos pela condição agradável a levemente fresca. Após a análise diagnóstica, foram construídos cenários contemplando atividades de planejamento urbano em busca da melhoria das condições de conforto térmico humano. Os experimentos realizados indicam que os fluxos turbulentos em superfície são consideravelmente modificados e que a temperatura pode sofrer uma diminuição gradativa até cerca de 1,5 ºC com a substituição de 50% da superfície urbana por vegetação, chegando a mais de 2,2 ºC quando esta substituição é completa. O perfil de temperatura potencial na Camada Limite Planetária também foi consideravelmente modificado com o aumento da porção vegetada no domímio modelado. / This master\'s research project has the goal of indentifying the impacts of urban surface properties over the meteorological conditions of the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo (MASP), in order to obtain a better understanding of them and to provide means of better organized urban planning activities. The work was made by using as principal tools, remote sensing derived products, in order to define some surface properties, surface measurements of atmospheric variables, in order to obtain human thermal comfort indexes, and numerical modeling of the atmosphere, in order to identify atmospheric conditions and simulate useful scenaries for urban planning. By using sattelite images, land use and vegetated fraction files were created over the MASP with very high resolution (20 m). Afterwards, temperature and relative humidity measured by CETESB were associated to urban land use patterns. It was verified that regions like São Caetano do Sul and Parque D. Pedro II are more likely to have greater discomfort sensation by moderate heat. Regions like São Miguel Paulista and Ibirapuera were identified to be more confortable. In the majority of cases, the regions presented a pleasant to lightly warm, followed by pleasant to lightly fresh conditions. After the definition of the surface properties, scenarios were built comprehending urban planning activities, looking for the improvement of human thermal comfort conditions. The experiments showed that the surface turbulent fluxes are considerably changed and that temperature was gradualy reduced in up to 1,5 ºC with the replacement of 50% of the urban surface by vegetation, reaching more than 2,2 ºC when this replacement was complete. The potential temperature profile inside the Planetary Boundary Layer was also considerably modified following the increase of vegetated area in the modeled domain.

Providing conditioned and fully controlled room is the final goal for having a comfortable building. But on the other hand making smart controllers to provide the required cooling or heating load depending on occupants' real time feeling is necessary. This study has emphasized on finding a meaningful and steady state parameter in human body that can be interpreted as comfort criterion which can be expressed as the general occupants' sensation through their ambient temperature. There are lots of researches on human physiological behavior in different situations and also different body parts reaction to the same ambient situation. Body parts which have the biggest reliable linear fluctuation to the changes are the best subject for this research. For these tests, wrist and palm have been selected and their temperatures on different people have been measured accurately with thermal camera to follow the temperature trend on various comfort levels. It is found that each person reaches to his own unique temperature on these two spots, when he/ she feels comfortable, or in other word each person's body temperature is a precise nominate for comfort feeling of that individual. So in future by having this unique comfort parameter and applying them to the HVAC system temperature control, controlling the dynamic temperature and correlating the indoor condition depending on the occupants instant thermal comfort level, would be a rational choice to bring convenience while energy has been saved more.

A sensação de conforto térmico está associada com o ritmo de troca de calor e umidade entre o corpo humano e o ambiente. O corpo humano reage diferentemente às variações de temperatura e procura se autorregular com finalidade de manter em equilíbrio a sua temperatura interna, buscando adequar-se ao meio em que está inserido. A razão de se criarem condições de conforto térmico, reside, portanto, no desejo do homem de sentir-se termicamente confortável, além disso, o conforto térmico pode ser justificado do ponto de vista do desempenho humano, bem como a resistência a determinadas enfermidades e a produtividade dos indivíduos. Assim, o conforto térmico pode ser visto e analisado, sob dois aspectos: do ponto de vista pessoal e do ponto de vista ambiental. A partir disto, o objetivo geral desta pesquisa foi avaliar as condições de conforto térmico nas escalas regional e sub-regional no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, segundo as médias mensais e sazonais de temperatura do ar, da umidade relativa do ar e velocidade do vento com a finalidade de se estabelecer uma regionalização climática para o estado com base no zoneamento do conforto térmico humano. Estabeleceram-se, também, as condições de conforto térmico para os anos-padrões mais chuvoso, menos chuvoso e habitual. Os sistemas atmosféricos predominantes nestes anos também foram avaliados. Fezse a fundamentação teórica relativa ao tema, bem como se utilizou da base de dados climáticos do Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET). Tal base foi digitalizada com auxilio de SIG (Sistema de Informação Geográfica), bem como procedeu-se a construção do banco de dados, no qual foram atribuídos os índices de Temperatura Efetiva com Vento (TEv), para as estações de outono e inverno, e o índice de Temperatura Resultante (TR) para as estações de primavera e verão. As faixas de sensação térmica foram definidas a partir das classes elaboradas por Fanger (1972) e adaptadas para São Paulo, SP por Maia e Gonçalves (2002). Ao todo foram utilizadas 23 estações meteorológicas distribuídas pelos distintos compartimentos geomorfológicos da área de estudo em uma série de 30 anos com dados diários. As estações do outono, verão e primavera mostraram-se como sendo as estações em que a determinação das faixas de sensação térmica na área de estudo apresentaram-se mais influenciadas pelos controles geográficos, tais como altitude, continentalidade, maritimidade e latitude, enquanto a estação de inverno apresentou forte influência da dinâmica atmosférica regional. Dentre os sistemas atmosféricos definidores da zonação climática, pode-se destacar a Massa Polar Atlântica (MPA) e Frente Polar Atlântica (FPA) na primavera, Massa Polar Velha (MPV), Massa Tropical Atlântica (MTA) e Massa Tropical Continental (MTC) no verão, MPA e Frente Estacionária (FE) no outono, e MPA no inverno. / The thermal comfort is associated with the rhythm of exchange of the heat and humidity between the human body and the environment. The human body reacts differently to temperature variations and demands regulate themselves in order to maintain balance in your internal temperature, trying to adapt to the environment in which it is inserted. The reason for creating the conditions for thermal comfort resides therefore in the man\'s desire to feel thermally comfortable, furthermore, the thermal comfort can be justified from the point of view of human performance as well as resistance to certain diseases and productivity of individuals. So, thermal comfort can be viewed and analyzed in two ways: from a personal standpoint and an environmental standpoint. From this, the objective of this research was to evaluate the thermal comfort conditions in the regional and sub-regional scales in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, according to the mean monthly and seasonal air temperature, relative humidity and air velocity wind in order to establish a climatic regionalization conditions for zoning based on human thermal comfort. Also were established the conditions for thermal comfort standards, years rainier, less rainy and habitual. Weather systems prevalent in these years were also evaluated. The theoretical foundation on the topic as well as the climatic data base of the National Institute of Meteorology (INMET) was used for research. This data base was scanned with the help of GIS (Geographic Information System), and the organization proceeded to build the database, which was assigned indices Effective Temperature with Wind (ETW), for fall and winter, and Resulting Temperature index (RT) for the spring and summer seasons. The tracks of thermal sensation were defined from the classes developed by Fanger (1972) and adapted to São Paulo, SP and by Maia and Gonçalves (2002). As a whole we used 23 weather stations distributed across different geomorphological compartments of the study area into a series of 30 years with daily data. The seasons of fall, summer and spring showed up as the seasons in which the determination of thermal sensation tracks in the study area present themselves as being influenced by geographic controls, such as altitude, continentality, proximity and distance from the ocean and latitude, while the winter station showed strong influence of regional atmospheric dynamics. Among the atmospheric systems defining the climatic zonation, we can highlight the Mass Polar Atlantic (MPA) and Atlantic Polar Front (APF) in the spring, Polar Old Mass (POM), Mass Tropical Atlantic (MTA) and Mass Tropical Continental (MTC) in the summer, MPA and Stationary Front (SF) in the fall and MPA in the winter.

The purpose of this study is to develop an improved human radiation exchange model for use by planners and researchers. Although applicable for all environments, emphasis will be on urban areas. All processes of radiation exchange between the human body surface and surrounding environments were investigated through human body area factors (effective radiation area factor, feff, and projected area factor, fp), existing human thermal exchange models and three-dimensional (3D) computer simulation models with collected microclimatic data. For new body area factors, a sample of standing contemporary Canadian adults in normal-weight (male: 31 persons, female: 40) and over-weight (male: 48, female: 20) body mass index (BMI) categories were analyzed. A 3D mean body model was created for each category. Only very small differences in feff and fp were found between genders and BMI categories. Differences in feff and fp values between this study and previous studies were very large, up to 0.101 and 0.173, respectively. Another common body posture, walking, was also studied for the normal-weight male and female BMI categories. 3D computer walking body models at four stride positions were created. The directionless fp values for walking posture had minor differences between genders and positions in a stride. However, the differences of mean directional fp values between azimuth angles were great enough (up to 0.072) to create important differences in modeled radiation receipt. When both standing and walking postures are considered, the mean feff value of standing (0.826) and walking (0.846), 0.836, could be used. However, fp values should be selected carefully because differences between directional and directionless fp values were large enough that they could influence the estimated level of human thermal sensation. A new human radiation exchange model was developed using the new body area factors and compared with five existing models and one method (Burt, COMFA, MENEX, OUT_SET* and RayMan models and the six-directional method) using collected microclimatic data observed in Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Most differences between models came from absorbed solar radiation, especially absorbed direct beam solar radiation because of differences in fp* (=fp×feff) and feff or some missing components (feff or view factors). The lowest differences between the new model and the RayMan model alter the net all-wave radiation estimate up to 29 Wm-2, which can be significant in the human thermal exchange model. For 3D computer estimation, a new human-urban radiation exchange simulation model was developed combining the new human radiation exchange model and improved urban area factors (i.e., albedos and view factors of sunny and shaded building, ground and vegetation surfaces). The results of the new computer model were compared with microclimatic data collected in Nanaimo, B.C., Canada and Changwon, Republic of Korea as well as with two other 3D computer simulation programs, RayMan Pro and ENVI-met 3.1. The differences between the collected data and the new model were very small. Their correlation was very strong, over 0.99 for total radiation. RayMan Pro and ENVI-met 3.1 programs had larger differences, and their correlations with measured data were weaker than the new model’s. Accurate meteorological and urban setting data should be obtained for better results. The new model will give planners and researchers a simple tool to estimate accurate radiation effects in complex urban areas. / Graduate

abstract: Trees serve as a natural umbrella to mitigate insolation absorbed by features of the urban environment, especially building structures and pavements. For a desert community, trees are a particularly valuable asset because they contribute to energy conservation efforts, improve home values, allow for cost savings, and promote enhanced health and well-being. The main obstacle in creating a sustainable urban community in a desert city with trees is the scarceness and cost of irrigation water. Thus, strategically located and arranged desert trees with the fewest tree numbers possible potentially translate into significant energy, water and long-term cost savings as well as conservation, economic, and health benefits. The objective of this dissertation is to achieve this research goal with integrated methods from both theoretical and empirical perspectives. This dissertation includes three main parts. The first part proposes a spatial optimization method to optimize the tree locations with the objective to maximize shade coverage on building facades and open structures and minimize shade coverage on building rooftops in a 3-dimensional environment. Second, an outdoor urban physical scale model with field measurement is presented to understand the cooling and locational benefits of tree shade. The third part implements a microclimate numerical simulation model to analyze how the specific tree locations and arrangements influence outdoor microclimates and improve human thermal comfort. These three parts of the dissertation attempt to fill the research gap of how to strategically locate trees at the building to neighborhood scale, and quantifying the impact of such arrangements. Results highlight the significance of arranging residential shade trees across different geographical scales. In both the building and neighborhood scales, research results recommend that trees should be arranged in the central part of the building south front yard. More cooling benefits are provided to the building structures and outdoor microclimates with a cluster tree arrangement without canopy overlap; however, if residents are interested in creating a better outdoor thermal environment, open space between trees is needed to enhance the wind environment for better human thermal comfort. Considering the rapid urbanization process, limited water resources supply, and the severe heat stress in the urban areas, judicious design and planning of trees is of increasing importance for improving the life quality and sustaining the urban environment. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Geography 2017

A sensação de conforto térmico está associada com o ritmo de troca de calor e umidade entre o corpo humano e o ambiente. O corpo humano reage diferentemente às variações de temperatura e procura se autorregular com finalidade de manter em equilíbrio a sua temperatura interna, buscando adequar-se ao meio em que está inserido. A razão de se criarem condições de conforto térmico, reside, portanto, no desejo do homem de sentir-se termicamente confortável, além disso, o conforto térmico pode ser justificado do ponto de vista do desempenho humano, bem como a resistência a determinadas enfermidades e a produtividade dos indivíduos. Assim, o conforto térmico pode ser visto e analisado, sob dois aspectos: do ponto de vista pessoal e do ponto de vista ambiental. A partir disto, o objetivo geral desta pesquisa foi avaliar as condições de conforto térmico nas escalas regional e sub-regional no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, segundo as médias mensais e sazonais de temperatura do ar, da umidade relativa do ar e velocidade do vento com a finalidade de se estabelecer uma regionalização climática para o estado com base no zoneamento do conforto térmico humano. Estabeleceram-se, também, as condições de conforto térmico para os anos-padrões mais chuvoso, menos chuvoso e habitual. Os sistemas atmosféricos predominantes nestes anos também foram avaliados. Fezse a fundamentação teórica relativa ao tema, bem como se utilizou da base de dados climáticos do Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET). Tal base foi digitalizada com auxilio de SIG (Sistema de Informação Geográfica), bem como procedeu-se a construção do banco de dados, no qual foram atribuídos os índices de Temperatura Efetiva com Vento (TEv), para as estações de outono e inverno, e o índice de Temperatura Resultante (TR) para as estações de primavera e verão. As faixas de sensação térmica foram definidas a partir das classes elaboradas por Fanger (1972) e adaptadas para São Paulo, SP por Maia e Gonçalves (2002). Ao todo foram utilizadas 23 estações meteorológicas distribuídas pelos distintos compartimentos geomorfológicos da área de estudo em uma série de 30 anos com dados diários. As estações do outono, verão e primavera mostraram-se como sendo as estações em que a determinação das faixas de sensação térmica na área de estudo apresentaram-se mais influenciadas pelos controles geográficos, tais como altitude, continentalidade, maritimidade e latitude, enquanto a estação de inverno apresentou forte influência da dinâmica atmosférica regional. Dentre os sistemas atmosféricos definidores da zonação climática, pode-se destacar a Massa Polar Atlântica (MPA) e Frente Polar Atlântica (FPA) na primavera, Massa Polar Velha (MPV), Massa Tropical Atlântica (MTA) e Massa Tropical Continental (MTC) no verão, MPA e Frente Estacionária (FE) no outono, e MPA no inverno. / The thermal comfort is associated with the rhythm of exchange of the heat and humidity between the human body and the environment. The human body reacts differently to temperature variations and demands regulate themselves in order to maintain balance in your internal temperature, trying to adapt to the environment in which it is inserted. The reason for creating the conditions for thermal comfort resides therefore in the man\'s desire to feel thermally comfortable, furthermore, the thermal comfort can be justified from the point of view of human performance as well as resistance to certain diseases and productivity of individuals. So, thermal comfort can be viewed and analyzed in two ways: from a personal standpoint and an environmental standpoint. From this, the objective of this research was to evaluate the thermal comfort conditions in the regional and sub-regional scales in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, according to the mean monthly and seasonal air temperature, relative humidity and air velocity wind in order to establish a climatic regionalization conditions for zoning based on human thermal comfort. Also were established the conditions for thermal comfort standards, years rainier, less rainy and habitual. Weather systems prevalent in these years were also evaluated. The theoretical foundation on the topic as well as the climatic data base of the National Institute of Meteorology (INMET) was used for research. This data base was scanned with the help of GIS (Geographic Information System), and the organization proceeded to build the database, which was assigned indices Effective Temperature with Wind (ETW), for fall and winter, and Resulting Temperature index (RT) for the spring and summer seasons. The tracks of thermal sensation were defined from the classes developed by Fanger (1972) and adapted to São Paulo, SP and by Maia and Gonçalves (2002). As a whole we used 23 weather stations distributed across different geomorphological compartments of the study area into a series of 30 years with daily data. The seasons of fall, summer and spring showed up as the seasons in which the determination of thermal sensation tracks in the study area present themselves as being influenced by geographic controls, such as altitude, continentality, proximity and distance from the ocean and latitude, while the winter station showed strong influence of regional atmospheric dynamics. Among the atmospheric systems defining the climatic zonation, we can highlight the Mass Polar Atlantic (MPA) and Atlantic Polar Front (APF) in the spring, Polar Old Mass (POM), Mass Tropical Atlantic (MTA) and Mass Tropical Continental (MTC) in the summer, MPA and Stationary Front (SF) in the fall and MPA in the winter.