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It is now clear that estrogen not only modulates the differentiation and function of reproductive systems, but it also profoundly regulates the immune system of normal and autoimmune individuals. An important mechanism by which estrogen regulates the immune system is by altering the secretion and/or response to cytokines. We hypothesized that estrogen may alter the levels and/or response to IFN-g, a prototype Th1 cytokine, that plays a pivotal role in immunity against intracellular infections and in many autoimmune and inflammatory disorders. We found that estrogen treatment tended to upregulate the secretion of IFN-g protein and mRNA expression from Concanavalin-A (Con-A)-activated splenic lymphocytes. Impressively, we found that splenocytes from estrogen-treated mice when activated with Con-A also resulted in increased release of nitric oxide compared to placebo-treated mice. Furthermore, Con-A-activated splenocytes from estrogen-treated mice also had upregulated iNOS mRNA, iNOS protein, and nitric oxide-regulated COX-2 protein when compared to control mice. Blocking co-stimulatory signals mediated through interactions of CD28 and B7 molecules by using CTLA-4Ig markedly decreased not only IFN-g, but also nitric oxide, thereby implying an important role for CD28/B7 interactions in IFN-g/nitric oxide. Estrogen-induced upregulation of iNOS/nitric oxide is mediated through IFN-g since: (i) Estrogen alone did not upregulate iNOS/nitric oxide in IFN-g knockout mice; (ii) addition of rIFN-g to activated splenocytes from estrogen-treated mice further upregulated nitric oxide levels. We next investigated whether estrogen also upregulated IFN-g-inducing cytokines and select IFN-g-inducing transcription factors. Estrogen treatment resulted in increased mRNA and/or protein expression of IFN-g inducing cytokines and their receptors, including: IL-18, IL-15, IL-27, IL-12Rb2, and IL-18Rb. We also found that T-bet, a critical Th1 transcription factor, and STAT-4 phosphorylation, a key molecule in IL-12 signaling were both increased, while IRF-4, an important player in Th2 differentiation, was diminished in Con-A-activated splenocytes from mice treated with estrogen. Altogether, these studies are the first to demonstrate that estrogen regulates IFN-g-dependent iNOS and describes the potential mechanisms of how estrogen alters IFN-g-inducible genes, IFN-g inducing cytokines, and transcription factors in normal C57BL/6 mice. These studies may have profound implications to many autoimmune and inflammatory disorders, where estrogen is known to regulate the course of these diseases. Since estrogen may promote inflammatory disorders by upregulating pro-inflammatory biomolecules including IFN-g, nitric oxide, and COX-2, these studies may help in the design of therapeutic agents that regulate or block secretion and/or response to these inflammatory molecules. / Ph. D.

O sistema NADPH oxidase é um complexo enzimático gerador de ânion superóxido formado pelas subunidades gp91-phox e p22-phox, p47-phox, p67-phox e p40-phox. O eixo IL-12/23-IFN-g é crítico para a ativação dos fagócitos e controle de infecções. Defeitos na ativação deste eixo resultam em infecções recorrentes e à MSMD, e podem levar à diminuição da expressão do componente gp91-phox. Em minha Dissertação de Mestrado (Aragão-Filho, 2009), vimos que as subunidades 1 e 2 do receptor do IFN-g são necessárias para a expressão dos genes NCF1 e NCF2 e para a ativação do sistema NADPH oxidase humano nos modelos experimentais de células humanas por nós utilizados. Assim, no presente trabalho de doutorado, continuamos a investigar o papel dos defeitos no eixo IL-12/23-IFN-g sobre o sistema NADPH oxidase utilizando novas linhagens celulares de pacientes com defeitos no eixo IL-12/23-IFN-g. Verificamos que há defeito secundário da ativação da NADPH oxidase em pacientes com defeitos no eixo IL-12/23-IFN-g, o que representa um novo mecanismo imunopatológico envolvido na MSMD. / The NADPH oxidase system is an enzymatic complex that generates superoxide anion, it is formed by gp91-phox, p22-phox, p47-phox, p67-phox and p40-phox subunits. The IL-12/23-IFN-g axis is critical for the phagocytes activation and infection control. Defects in this axis activation result in recurrent infections and MSMD, and can lead to decreased expression of gp91-phox component. In my Master Thesis (Aragão-Filho, 2009), we found that the subunits 1 and 2 of the IFN-g receptor are required for NCF1 and NCF2 gene expression and activation of human NADPH oxidase system in human experimental cell models that we used. Therefore, in the present doctoral work, we continue to investigate the role of IL-12/23-IFN-g axis defects on NADPH oxidase system using new cell lines from patients with IL-12/23-IFN-g axis defects. We verify that there is a secundary defect in the activation of the NADPH oxidase from patients with IL-12/23-IFN-g defects, what represents a new immunopathological mechanism involved in MSMD.

O sistema NADPH oxidase é um complexo enzimático gerador de ânion superóxido formado pelas subunidades gp91-phox e p22-phox, p47-phox, p67-phox e p40-phox. O eixo IL-12/23-IFN-g é crítico para a ativação dos fagócitos e controle de infecções. Defeitos na ativação deste eixo resultam em infecções recorrentes e à MSMD, e podem levar à diminuição da expressão do componente gp91-phox. Em minha Dissertação de Mestrado (Aragão-Filho, 2009), vimos que as subunidades 1 e 2 do receptor do IFN-g são necessárias para a expressão dos genes NCF1 e NCF2 e para a ativação do sistema NADPH oxidase humano nos modelos experimentais de células humanas por nós utilizados. Assim, no presente trabalho de doutorado, continuamos a investigar o papel dos defeitos no eixo IL-12/23-IFN-g sobre o sistema NADPH oxidase utilizando novas linhagens celulares de pacientes com defeitos no eixo IL-12/23-IFN-g. Verificamos que há defeito secundário da ativação da NADPH oxidase em pacientes com defeitos no eixo IL-12/23-IFN-g, o que representa um novo mecanismo imunopatológico envolvido na MSMD. / The NADPH oxidase system is an enzymatic complex that generates superoxide anion, it is formed by gp91-phox, p22-phox, p47-phox, p67-phox and p40-phox subunits. The IL-12/23-IFN-g axis is critical for the phagocytes activation and infection control. Defects in this axis activation result in recurrent infections and MSMD, and can lead to decreased expression of gp91-phox component. In my Master Thesis (Aragão-Filho, 2009), we found that the subunits 1 and 2 of the IFN-g receptor are required for NCF1 and NCF2 gene expression and activation of human NADPH oxidase system in human experimental cell models that we used. Therefore, in the present doctoral work, we continue to investigate the role of IL-12/23-IFN-g axis defects on NADPH oxidase system using new cell lines from patients with IL-12/23-IFN-g axis defects. We verify that there is a secundary defect in the activation of the NADPH oxidase from patients with IL-12/23-IFN-g defects, what represents a new immunopathological mechanism involved in MSMD.

Résumé : L’immunothérapie anti-PD1 est à l’origine de résultats cliniques impressionnants dans le traitement de certains cancers comme le mélanome métastatique ou le lymphome Hodgkinien. Néanmoins, les rechutes sont fréquentes et certaines tumeurs y sont d’emblée résistantes. Par ailleurs, l’étude du complexe d’initiation de la traduction eIF4F gagne de plus en plus d’intérêt dans le domaine du cancer. En effet, eIF4F joue un rôle fondamental dans la biologie des cancers grâce au contrôle sélectif de la synthèse de protéines impliquées dans le développement tumoral.Dans cette étude, nous montrons que l’inhibition du complexe eIF4F, en plus d’avoir un effet antitumoral directe via l’inhibition de la croissance tumorale in-vitro, a une action indirecte grâce à l’inhibition de l’expression de PD-L1 sous IFN-g, évitant ainsi le blocage des lymphocytes cytotoxiques suite à l’engagement PD-1/PD-L1. Dans un modèle murin de mélanome, nous avons montré une inhibition de la croissance tumorale grâce à l’inhibition de l’expression de PD-L1, uniquement dans des souris immunocompétentes, montrant ainsi le rôle fondamental du système immunitaire. Nous avons ensuite identifié la voie de régulation de PD-L1 par eIF4F via une régulation traductionnelle de l’ARNm de STAT1, principal facteur de transcription de PD-L1 sous IFN-g.Cette étude apporte une nouvelle preuve de l’intérêt des inhibiteurs d’eIF4F dans le cancer en démontrant leur effet immunothérapeutique via l’inhibition de PD-L1, évitant ainsi l’interaction PD-1/PD-L1 qui conduit à l’échappement des tumeurs. Ces résultats ouvrent la voie vers de nouvelles stratégies dans la lutte contre le cancer. / The eukaryotic translation initiation complex eIF4F is subject of an increased interest in the field of cancer. This heterotrimeric complex, comprising the RNA helicase eIF4A, the cap-binding protein eIF4E and the scaffold protein eIF4G, is known to be more abundant and active in tumor cells than non-malignant counterparts.In a previous work, we showed that this complex is implicated in the resistance to melanoma-targeted therapies (Boussemart et al, Nature 2014). Furthermore, it is implicated in the resistance to various chemotherapies. Thus, agents targeting the eIF4F complex appear as promising tools in the field of cancer therapy.On the other hand, immunotherapy, by (re)stimulating and enhancing the host immune system against tumors is giving good clinical results in oncology treatment and appears nowadays as the most promising approach to fight cancer, especially anti-PD1 treatment. Even though immunotherapy has demonstrated remarkable results in curing some established cancers, such as advanced melanoma or Hodgkin’s lymphoma, many tumors relapse or fail to respond. It is thus important to still look for a new strategy enhancing the efficacy of actual treatments. Here, we propose to study the impact of inhibiting the eIF4F complex on the tumor-specific immune response.

Conhecemos o papel dos leucócitos no controle do Trypanosoma cruzi, mas ignoramos qual a contribuição das populações estruturais (miócitos, hepatócitos, etc). Estas populações poderiam sinalizar a presença do parasita e/ou ter ação efetora que poderia aumentar em resposta a citocinas como o IFN-g. Para verificar se as células estruturais respondem ao IFN-g contribuindo à destruição do T. cruzi, analisamos a infecção em quimeras WT/IFNgR-KO (WT/KO) geradas em camundongos IFNgR-KO reconstituídos com medula óssea de camundongos selvagens (WT), nas quais parte dos leucócitos é IFNgR+, mas as células não leucocitárias são deficientes. Quimeras WT/KO e quimeras controle WT/WT foram estudadas em relação à carga parasitária e inflamação. O parasitismo sistêmico e tissular é maior nas quimeras WT/KO do que nas quimeras WT/WT, mas inferior à dos controles IFNgR-KO. Nos animais WT/KO o aumento de ninhos no coração e músculo não se acompanha de aumento no infiltrado leucocitário. Os resultados sugerem que as células não leucocitárias contribuem à defesa frente ao T. cruzi. / Although we know the role played by leukocytes in Trypanosoma cruzi control, we ignore the contribution of structural cells (myocytes, hepatocytes, etc). These cells could signal the presence of the parasite and/or mediate an effector activity which could increase in response to cytokines, as IFN-g. To evaluate if non-leukocytes respond to IFNg, contributing to T. cruzi destruction, we analysed the infection in WT/IFNgR-KO (WT/KO) chimaeras, generated in IFNgR-KO mice reconstituted with bone marrow of wild-type mice (WT) so that most leukocytes are IFNgR+ but structural cells are deficient. WT/KO chimaeras and control WT/WT chimaeras were infected by T. cruzi and the parasite load and inflammation analyzed in various organs. Systemic and tissue parasite loads were higher in WT/KO chimeras than in WT/WT chimeras, but lower than in control IFNgR-KO mice. In WT/KO chimaeras the increased parasite load at the heart and skeletal muscle was not followed by an increase of inflammatory infiltrates. Our results suggest that structural cells contribute to T. cruzi control.

Conhecemos o papel dos leucócitos no controle do Trypanosoma cruzi, mas ignoramos qual a contribuição das populações estruturais (miócitos, hepatócitos, etc). Estas populações poderiam sinalizar a presença do parasita e/ou ter ação efetora que poderia aumentar em resposta a citocinas como o IFN-g. Para verificar se as células estruturais respondem ao IFN-g contribuindo à destruição do T. cruzi, analisamos a infecção em quimeras WT/IFNgR-KO (WT/KO) geradas em camundongos IFNgR-KO reconstituídos com medula óssea de camundongos selvagens (WT), nas quais parte dos leucócitos é IFNgR+, mas as células não leucocitárias são deficientes. Quimeras WT/KO e quimeras controle WT/WT foram estudadas em relação à carga parasitária e inflamação. O parasitismo sistêmico e tissular é maior nas quimeras WT/KO do que nas quimeras WT/WT, mas inferior à dos controles IFNgR-KO. Nos animais WT/KO o aumento de ninhos no coração e músculo não se acompanha de aumento no infiltrado leucocitário. Os resultados sugerem que as células não leucocitárias contribuem à defesa frente ao T. cruzi. / Although we know the role played by leukocytes in Trypanosoma cruzi control, we ignore the contribution of structural cells (myocytes, hepatocytes, etc). These cells could signal the presence of the parasite and/or mediate an effector activity which could increase in response to cytokines, as IFN-g. To evaluate if non-leukocytes respond to IFNg, contributing to T. cruzi destruction, we analysed the infection in WT/IFNgR-KO (WT/KO) chimaeras, generated in IFNgR-KO mice reconstituted with bone marrow of wild-type mice (WT) so that most leukocytes are IFNgR+ but structural cells are deficient. WT/KO chimaeras and control WT/WT chimaeras were infected by T. cruzi and the parasite load and inflammation analyzed in various organs. Systemic and tissue parasite loads were higher in WT/KO chimeras than in WT/WT chimeras, but lower than in control IFNgR-KO mice. In WT/KO chimaeras the increased parasite load at the heart and skeletal muscle was not followed by an increase of inflammatory infiltrates. Our results suggest that structural cells contribute to T. cruzi control.

L'asthme est une maladie inflammatoire chronique des voies aériennes dont l'incidence a augmenté dramatiquement au cours de ces deux dernières décennies. Chez les individus sensibles, cette inflammation induit des épisodes de sifflements récurrents, une oppression thoracique, une sécrétion de mucus ainsi qu'une obstruction des voies respiratoires, un recrutement éosinophilique et une hyperréactivité broncho-pulmonaire (HRB). Les avancées dans la compréhension de la physiopathologie de l'asthme ont été réalisées grâce aux modèles expérimentaux murins. Ces travaux ont mis en évidence le rôle de différentes cellules dans l'immunorégulation de l'inflammation bronchique, notamment les lymphocytes T de type Th2. Toutefois, les mécanismes immunologiques impliqués dans la protection ou l'exacerbation de la maladie sont encore peu connus. Au cours de notre étude, nous avons mis en évidence l'influence de cellules Natural Killer T invariantes (iNKT) dans le développement de l'asthme allergique expérimental. Les cellules iNKT représentent une population immunorégulatrice de lymphocytes T, caractérisée par l'expression d'une chaîne alpha invariante du TCR (Va14Ja18 et Va24Ja18, respectivement chez la souris et chez l'homme) qui est positivement sélectionnée par la molécule CD1d. Ces cellules synthétisent rapidement et massivement de nombreuses cytokines, comme l'IL-4 et l'IFN-g, lorsqu'elles sont simulées par l'a-galactosylcéramide (a-GalCer), glycolipide reconnu spécifiquement par les lymphocytes iNKT. Le spectre d'action attribué aux cellules iNKT est particulièrement large. Elles sont impliquées dans le contrôle des réponses immunes contre des infections, des maladies autoimmunes, des modèles de contact de sensibilité et des tumeurs.<br /><br />En utilisant un modèle où les souris sont immunisées de façon systémique par l'ovalbumine (OVA) et ensuite stimulées au niveau des voies aériennes par ce même antigène (étape désignée comme « challenge »), nous avons démontré que les cellules iNKT sont impliquées dans la sévérité de l'asthme allergique expérimental. En effet, divers symptômes de l'asthme sont diminués chez les souris déficientes en cellules iNKT (Ja18-/-), notamment, l'inflammation éosinophilique, la production de cytokines de type Th2, comme l'IL-4 et l'IL-5, la sécrétion d'IgE et l'HRB. L'implication des cellules iNKT dans la sévérité de l'asthme a été confirmée puisque le transfert adoptif des cellules iNKT à des souris Ja18-/- rétablit les symptômes décrits ci-dessus. <br /><br />En nous basant sur ces résultats, nous nous sommes demandés si nous pourrions modifier la sévérité de l'asthme allergique en agissant sur les lymphocytes iNKT. Pour cela, nous avons traité des souris par l'a-GalCer. Nous avons ainsi démontré qu'une seule injection d'a-GalCer 1 h avant le premier challenge intranasal à des souris précédemment immunisées inhibait la totalité des symptômes de l'asthme. L'administration intranasal de l'a-GalCer inhibe les symptômes de l'asthme chez les souris immunisées et provoquées par l'OVA. Cette protection peut être transférée chez des souris immunisées grâce à des cellules en provenance de souris traitées par l'a-GalCer. L'implication de l'IFN-g dans cette protection a été mise en évidence par des anticorps neutralisants, ainsi que par le transfert de cellules iNKT en provenance de souris IFN-g-/-. <br /><br />En conclusion, nos résultats démontrent que les cellules iNKT sont impliquées dans la sévérité de l'asthme allergique expérimental en activant la sécrétion de cytokines de type Th2 et que le traitement par l'a-GalCer, qui agit spécifiquement sur les lymphocytes iNKT, inhibe le développement de la maladie en induisant la sécrétion d'IFN-g. Ainsi, nos résultats suggèrent que l'a-GalCer pourrait constituer un nouvel outil thérapeutique dans le traitement de l'asthme allergique.

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