Les comètes sont les vestiges de la "nébuleuse solaire", c'est-à-dire du disque proto-planétaire qui a engendré notre système solaire. Elles sont composées de glaces et de poussières contenant des matériaux et molécules organiques ainsi que des minéraux. La composition des comètes reflète au premier ordre celle des glaces interstellaires. Toutefois, cette filiation n'est pas avérée. Au cours de la période pré-accrétionelle, le matériau cométaire a potentiellement subi l'action de nombreux processus physiques (chauffage, irradiation UV et particulaire) qui ont nécessairement altéré sa structure et sa composition.L'objectif ce cette thèse est de mieux comprendre, grâce à des expériences de laboratoire, l'effet des processus de chauffage et d'irradiation ionique sur des analogues de matière cométaire (glaces et matériaux carbonés). Une partie de ces expériences porte sur l’évolution de la deutération des molécules organiques lors du réchauffement des glaces. Elles ont été menées à l’IPAG (Institut de Planétologie et d’Astrophysique de Grenoble) et au PIIM (Laboratoire de Physique des Interactions Ioniques et Moléculaires) à Marseille. Elles démontrent qu'un équilibrage isotopique a lieu au cours de la cristallisation, sur des échelles de temps de l'ordre de l'heure à des températures supérieures à 120 K, pour les groupements chimiques capables de former des liaisons hydrogènes avec l'eau (groupements -OH et -NH2). Cet équilibrage efface ainsi le fractionnement initial de certaines molécules, ou certains groupements chimiques, dans la phase post-sublimation. Ce résultat permet en particulier d'expliquer la deutération sélective des isotopologues du méthanol dans les cœurs chauds des proto-étoiles.Un second volet de la thèse a porté sur l'étude de la formation de la matière organique réfractaire présente dans les astéroïdes et les comètes. Des expériences de chauffage et d’irradiation ont été menées à l'IPAG, au GANIL (Grand accélérateur national d’ions lourds) à Caen, et au CSNSM (Centre de Sciences Nucléaires et de Sciences de la Matière) à Orsay. Nous montrons qu'un chauffage au-delà de 400° C de précurseurs simples permet la formation de carbones désordonnés polyaromatiques dont la structure est proche de celle observée dans les objets primitifs du système solaire. Les effets de l’irradiation ionique sont plus difficiles à évaluer car ils dépendent du pouvoir d'arrêt des précurseurs cibles et des ions projectiles. Des contraintes sur les doses nucléaires maximales reçues par la matière primitive sont néanmoins déduites (D<14 eV/atome). In fine, ces simulations démontrent qu'un processus de chauffage apparaît comme beaucoup plus probable que les processus radiolytiques, mais une combinaison des deux ne peut pas être exclue.Enfin, cette thèse a bénéficié des premières données in situ de la mission spatiale européenne ROSETTA en orbite autour de la comète Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P) de juillet 2014 à septembre 2016. L’analyse des données du spectro-imageur VIRTIS-M a permis de montrer qu’un matériau organique semi-volatile, contenant notamment des acides carboxyliques, est présent de manière quasi-homogène sur toute la surface de la comète 67P. / Comets are remnants of the "solar nebula", i.e. the protoplanetary disk from which our solar system formed. They are composed of ice and dust containing minerals and organic materials and molecules. The comets' composition reflects at the first order that of interstellar ices. However, this relationship has not been proven. During the pre-accretional phase, the comet material has potentially undergone the action of many physical processes (heat, UV and particule radiation) which have undoubtedly altered its structure and composition.This thesis objective is to better understand, through laboratory experiments, the effect of heating and ion irradiation processes on cometary matter analogues (ice and carbonaceous materials). Some of these experiments focuses on the evolution of the organic molecules deuteration during ice heating. They were conducted at the IPAG (Institute of Planetology and Astrophysics of Grenoble) and the PIIM (Physics Laboratory of Ionic and Molecular Interaction) in Marseille. They demonstrate that isotopic equilibration takes place during crystallization, on a timescale of an hour at temperatures above 120 K, for the chemical groups capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water (OH and NH2 chemical groups). Thus, this equilibration erases the initial fractionation of certain molecules or certain chemical groups, during the post-sublimation phase. This result explains in particular the selective deuteration of isotopologues methanol in protostars hot cores.A second part of the thesis focused on the study of the formation of refractory organic matter found in asteroids and comets. Heating and irradiation experiments were conducted at the IPAG, at the GANIL (Grand National Accelerator heavy ion) in Caen, and the CSNSM (Nuclear Sciences Centre and the Material Sciences) in Orsay. We show that heating simple precursors above 400° C allows the formation of disordered polyaromatic carbons whose structure is close to that observed in the primitive objetcs of the solar system. Ion irradiation effects are more difficult to assess because they depend on the stopping power of precursors target and projectile ions. Nevertheless, constraints on maximum nuclear doses received by primitive matter are deducted (D>14 eV/atom). Ultimately, these simulations demonstrate that heating processes appear to be much more likely than radiolytic processes, but a combination of the two can not be ruled out.

La structure du milieu interstellaire est très hétérogène dans notre Galaxie. Les observations, ainsi que les lois d'échelle, suggèrent que sa structure pourrait être fractale. Les plus petites structures de gaz ou clumps auraient un rayon de quelques unités astronomiques et une température de quelques kelvins, les rendant très difficilement détectables. Ces nuages de gaz moléculaires froids et denses peuvent donc être des candidats peu lumineux à une matière noire baryonique.L'objectif de cette thèse est de trouver des indices observationnels de l'existence de ces sous-structures gazeuses. La méthodologie consiste à comparer les magnitudes apparentes d'étoiles à différents intervalles de temps et vers plusieurs directions dans la Galaxie; afin de détecter des variations photométriques temporelles compatibles avec un événement d'obscurcissement. En effet, si un nuage moléculaire se trouve en amont d'une étoile, celle-ci sera obscurcie ou occultée par les sous-structures composant le nuage moléculaire, pendant une certaine durée de temps (dépendant de la vitesse de chaque objet et du temps d'observation considéré). Dans un premier temps, nous avons effectué un traitement photométrique complet pour chercher de tels événements dans l'amas globulaire NGC 4833 en comparant des observations photométriques séparées de six mois. Cet amas fut observé par D. Puy et D. Pfenniger en janvier et juillet 2006. Puis, nous avons utilisé des observations de plusieurs amas globulaires observés par le télescope Hubble, dont la photométrie est connue et rendue publique.Finalement, nous avons développé des méthodes d'apprentissage automatique afin de détecter des événements d'obscurcissement dans le Sloan Digital Sky Survey, Stripe 82.Aucun événement d’obscurcissement d'étoiles n'a pu être détecté ni dans la direction des amas globulaires considérés ni dans la région de Stripe 82. Néanmoins, des simulations d'un nuage fractal ont été réalisées pour estimer la probabilité d’occurrence du phénomène d'obscurcissement d'étoiles. Elles montrent que l’événement est extrêmement rare, ce qui permet d'émettre une nouvelle stratégie d'observation pour augmenter les chances de détecter de tels événements. De plus, les méthodes d'apprentissage automatique utilisées pour cette étude sont appliquées à d'autres objets variables tel que les quasars, très nombreux dans Stripe 82, et peuvent être utilisées pour d'autres objets variables tels que les supernovae. / The scaling laws and the very appearance of the interstellar medium suggest that this medium might have a fractal structure. The smallest structure of gas called clumps might have a radius about few astronomical units and a very low temperature of few kelvins, making them very difficult to detect. That is why, cold, dense, molecular clouds could be ideal candidates for baryonic dark matter. Because of their low temperature, they do not radiate, and seem to be dark.The aim of this thesis is to highlight observational clues on the existence of clumps by comparing apparent magnitudes of stars at different times, and towards different directions in the Galaxy. If a molecular fractal cloud lies behind a star, it will be obscured or occulted within a certain time (depending on the velocity of each object and on observational time). Therefore the goal of this thesis is to detect magnitude-time variations of stars compatible with an obscuration event.First, we did a complete photometric data reduction of observations of a globular cluster, NGC 4833, carried out by D. Puy and D. Pfenniger in January and July 2006. We wanted to detect obscuration events of stars in NGC 4833, in a six-month period. Then, we used public data of several globular clusters observed by the Hubble Space telescope.Finally, we developed machine learning methods to detect obscuration events in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, Stripe 82.No obscuration events were detected either in several globular clusters, or in the Stripe 82 survey. However, we performed simulations of a fractal cloud to estimate probabilities of obscuration events. They show that such events are very rare, allowing us to develop a new observational strategy for increasing the probability of detecting obscuration events. Moreover, machine learning methods used in this study are applied to other variable objects, such as quasars which are numerous inside Stripe 82 survey, and could be used to other variables objects such as supernovae for example.

Remarkable progress has been made over the last few decades in furthering our understanding of the growth of cosmic structure. Nonetheless, there remains a great deal of uncertainty regarding the precise details of the complex baryonic physics that regulate galaxy formation. Any theory of star formation in galaxies must encompass the radiative cooling of gas into dark matter haloes, the formation of a turbulent, multiphase interstellar medium (ISM), the efficiency with which molecular gas is able to collapse into cores and ultimately stars, and the subsequent interaction of those stars with the gas through ionizing radiation, winds and supernova (SN) explosions. Given the highly non-linear nature of the problem, numerical simulations provide an invaluable tool with which to study galaxy formation. Yet, even with contemporary computational resources, the inherently large dynamical range of spatial scales that must be tackled makes the development of such models extremely challenging, inevitably leading to the adoption of `subgrid' approximations at some scale. In this thesis, I explore new methods of incorporating the physics of star formation and stellar feedback into high resolution hydrodynamic simulations of galaxies. I first describe a new implementation of star formation and SN feedback that I have developed for the state-of-the-art moving mesh code Arepo. I carry out a detailed study into various classes of subgrid SN feedback schemes commonly adopted in the literature, including injections of thermal and/or kinetic energy, two parametrizations of delayed cooling feedback and a 'mechanical' feedback scheme that injects the appropriate amount of momentum depending on the relevant scale of the SN remnant (SNR) resolved. All schemes make use of individually time-resolved SN events. Adopting isolated disk galaxy setups at different resolutions, with the highest resolution runs reasonably resolving the Sedov-Taylor phase of the SNR, I demonstrate that the mechanical scheme is the only physically well-posed method of those examined, is efficient at suppressing star formation, agrees well with the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation and leads to converged star formation rates and galaxy morphologies with increasing resolution without fine tuning any parameters. However, I find that it is difficult to produce outflows with high enough mass loading factors at all but the highest resolution. I discuss the various possible solutions to this effect, including improved modelling of star formation. Moving on to a more self-consistent setup, I carry out a suite of cosmological zoom-in simulations of low mass haloes at very high resolution, performed to z = 4, to investigate the ability of SN feedback models to produce realistic galaxies. The haloes are selected in a variety of environments, ranging from voids to crowded locations. In the majority of cases, SN feedback alone has little impact at early times even in low mass haloes ($\sim10^{10}\,\mathrm{M_\odot}$ at z = 0). This appears to be due largely to the build up of very dense gas prior to SN events, suggesting that other mechanisms (such as other stellar feedback processes) are required to regulate ISM properties before SNe occur. The effectiveness of the feedback also appears to be strongly dependent on the merger history of the halo. Finally, I describe a new scheme to drive turbulence in isolated galaxy setups. The turbulent structure of the ISM very likely regulates star formation efficiencies on small scales, as well as affecting the clustering of SNe. The large range of potential drivers of ISM turbulence are not fully understood and are, in any case, unlikely to arise ab initio in a whole galaxy simulation. I therefore neglect these details and adopt a highly idealised approach, artificially driving turbulence to produce an ISM structure of my choice. This enables me to study the effects of a given level of ISM turbulence on global galaxy properties, such as the fragmentation scale of the disk and the impact on SN feedback efficiencies. I demonstrate this technique in the context of simulations of isolated dwarfs, finding that moderate levels of turbulent driving in combination with SN feedback can produce a steady-state of star formation rates and global galaxy properties, rather than the extremely violent SN feedback that is produced by a rapidly fragmenting disk.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:25:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2009-12-21Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:53:20Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 vichietti_rm_me_rcla.pdf: 842604 bytes, checksum: 731ca276a75c1b92840e57bd7497b5e1 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / De acordo com os resultados observacionais de condensações de nuvens moleculares escuras, grandes variações na razão 13CO/C18O são observadas quando se comparam os resultados obtidos nas condensações situadas dentro da mesma nuvem, bem como de nuvem para nuvem. O valor médio dessa razão na condensação principal de Ophiuchus é inferior a 5. Por outro lado, o valor encontrado nas condensações que estão situadas ao norte de Oph é maior que 10. Grandes diferenças também são encontradas quando se comparam os resultados observacionais de diferentes nuvens escuras, tais como Ophiuchus e Taurus, onde são observados também um decréscimo da razão C18O/C17O com o aumento da densidade. Os processos químicos e físicos que governam essas variações ainda não estão claros. Nesse sentido, o objetivo da presente proposta é analisar a influência do colapso gravitacional de condensações de nuvens moleculares escuras na síntese das moléculas CO, C17O, C18O, 13CO, 13C17O e 13C18O. Tal análise é feita com base em comparações entre modelos que consideram diferentes condições entre si, tais como, tamanho da cadeia química, velocidade de colapso, densidade inicial e processos de congelamento de espécies químicas na superfície de grãos de poeira. Os resultados obtidos mostram que o tamanho da cadeia química tem influência nas razões 13CO/C18O e C18O/C17O, mas não tanto quanto a densidade inicial e a velocidade do colapso. Além disso, o congelamento das espécies químicas nos grãos é mais significativo nos estágios mais avançados da evolução da condensação. Os modelos de condensações escuras que sofrem colapso gravitacional lento e em queda livre reproduzem satisfatoriamente as razões 13CO/C18O e C18O/C17O observadas, o que permite concluir que o colapso gravitacional pode ter um importante efeito nas referidas razões. / According to the observational results of dark molecular clouds condensations, large variations in the ratio 13CO/C18O are observed when comparing the results obtained in the condensations located within the same cloud and cloud to cloud. The average value of this ratio in the main condensation of Ophiuchus is below 5. On the other hand, the value found in the condensations that are located north of Oph is larger than 10. Large differences are also found when comparing the observational results of different dark clouds such as Ophiuchus and Taurus, in which are also found a decrease of the C18O/C17O ratio with increasing density. The chemical and physical processes that govern these variations are still unclear. In this sense, the objective of this proposal is to analyze the influence of the gravitational collapse of centrally condensed clumps of dense molecular gas in the synthesis of the CO, C17O, C18O, 13CO, 13C17O and 13C18O molecules. This analysis is based on comparisons among models that consider different condition, such as, chemical chain, initial density, speed of collapse and freezing processes of the chemical species on the surface of dust grains. The results show that the size of the chemical chain has influence on the 13CO/C18O and C18O/C17O ratios, but they are not as important as the initial density and the speed of the collapse. Furthermore, the freezing of chemical species on the grains occurs at later times of the collapse. The models of a gravitational free-fall collapsing core and of slowly contracting core with higher initial density are consistent with observations. These results indicate that the gravitational collapse of molecular cores can have an important effect in the 13CO/C18O and C18O/C17O ratios.

Bien que les grains de poussières représentent 1% du milieu interstellaire en masse, leur étude est essentielle pour comprendre le contenu et la structure des nuages interstellaires. Les grains de poussière, après avoir quitté leurs lieux de formation, se dispersent dans le milieu diffus avant d’être rassemblés lors de la formation des nuages moléculaires denses. C’est lors de cette étape qu’ils grossissent, notamment par coagulation, et acquièrent des manteaux de glaces. Ces changements morphologiques modifient également leurs propriétés optiques (absorption, diffusion et émission). Cependant, leur composition comme leur taille et leur forme restent difficiles à déterminer à partir des observations et constituent un problème hautement dégénéré. L’utilisation des longueurs d’onde en émission n’est pas suffisante pour lever cette dégénérescence dans les cœurs denses, lieu de formation des futures étoiles et planètes. En revanche la diffusion peut dominer l’absorption à 3.6 et 4.5 μm, ce phénomène appelé coreshine, est particulièrement utile pour sonder les parties les plus denses des nuages. La présence de coreshine dans plus d’une centaine de nuages de notre Galaxie permet d’éliminer bon nombre de modèles de poussières. La modélisation multi–longueurs d’onde en 3 dimensions est une approche nécessaire pour caractériser la balance entre l’absorption du rayonnement et sa diffusion. Alors que la plupart des travaux se concentrent sur l’absorption et la réémission du rayonnement, la diffusion, souvent délaissée, permet d’apporter une vision complète du transfert de rayonnement dans les nuages denses. / Even though dust grains contribute only to 1% of the interstellar medium mass, their study is crucial to understand both the structure and content of interstellar clouds. Dust grains leave their birth places, spread out into the diffuse medium before being gathered together again when dense molecular clouds form. During this last stage, they grow, by coagulation especially, and they acquire ice mantles composed mainly of water. These morphological changes also modify their optical properties (absorption, scattering, and emission). However, it remains a highly degenerate issue to determine their composition, size, and shape from observations. In particular, I will highlight that using wavelengths associated to dust emission is not sufficient to investigate the dense cores, where stars and planets will form. I will show that scattering can dominate the absorption at 3.6 and 4.5 μm, and that this phenomenon called coreshine is a powerful tool to investigate the densest parts of molecular clouds. The coreshine detection in more than one hundred clouds of our Galaxy allows us to eliminate a large number of dust models. Multi–wavelength 3D modeling is mandatory to characterize the balance between the absorption and the scattering of the radiation field. While most of the work about dust focus on absorption and re–emission of the radiation, I will present how scattering, often neglected, brings a complete picture of the radiative transfer inside dense clouds.

Le milieu interstellaire (MIS) des galaxies spirales joue un rôle primordial dans l'évolution des galaxies. Nous nous sommes attachés au cours de cette thèse à caractériser le lien existant entre le MIS dans les galaxies spirales et l'efficacité de la formation stellaire. Dans une première partie, nous étudions la morphologie du disque de gaz atomique de la galaxie spirale fortement inclinée NGC 2683, à l'aide d'un modèle de déprojection de cubes de données radio. Cette étude permet notamment de rendre compte de l'histoire d'accrétion de gaz dans ce système. Dans une seconde partie, nous nous intéressons aux conséquences de la compression du MIS qui peut avoir lieu dans des galaxies situées dans des environnements denses. Notre approche fait usage à la fois de données multilongueur d'onde de galaxies subissant la compression de leur MIS (avec notamment de nouvelles observations millimétriques), de simulations dynamiques de ces galaxies ainsi que d'un modèle analytique donnant accès à la physique aux petites échelles. Notre thèse montre la complémentarité de l'utilisation d'observations, de la modélisation de ces observations et de simulations dynamiques dans l'étude du MIS des galaxies spirales. / The interstellar medium (ISM) of spiral galaxies plays a key role in galaxy evolution. Throughout this thesis we characterized the link between the ISM of spiral galaxies and the star formation efficiency. In a first part, we studied the atomic gas distribution of the highly inclined spiral galaxy NGC 2683, with a deprojection model of radio data cubes. This study gives insight on the gas accretion history in this galaxy. In a second part of this work, we examined the compression effects of the ISM, which occurs in galaxies located in dense environment. Our approach makes use of both a multiwavelength data set of galaxies enduring ISM compression (including new millimeter observations), and dynamical simulations of these galaxies combined with an analytical model which gives access to small scale physics. Our thesis shows the complementarity of high quality observations together with modelisation of these observations and dynamical simulations in the study of the ISM in spiral galaxies.

Ma thèse s’est concentrée sur les conséquences qu’ont les choix de modélisation de l’émission de la poussière sur ses propriétés déduites dans les galaxies proches.Une première étude a montré que tous les modèles ne reproduisent pas des observations de deux galaxies proches de façon satisfaisante, bien que tous reproduisent l’émission IR de la Voie Lactée. Cela a aussi mis en évidence que la composition de la poussière est différente d’une galaxie à l’autre, et différente de celle de la Voie Lactée. Le choix de l’environnement des grains, à travers la description du champ de rayonnement qui chauffe ces grains, impacte significativement les résultats tels que la masse totale de poussières. Une deuxième étude s’est concentrée sur les biais systématiques dus à l‘emploi de lois empiriques de mélange pour décrire le chauffage de la poussière. J’ai montré que les masses déduites peuvent être sous- ou surestimées, bien que les ajustements aux données apparaissent raisonnables. Les résultats de cette thèse montrent alors qu’il est nécessaire de prendre en compte les choix de modélisation pour déterminer au mieux les propriétés des poussières dans les galaxies proches. / My thesis focused on the implications of dust emission modelisation choices on its derived properties in nearby galaxies. A first approach showed that all models do not fit observations of two nearby galaxies adequately and similarly, although they all managed to fit the Milky Way infrared emission. It also highlighted that the dust composition is not the same between those two galaxies, and also with that of the Milky Way. The choice of the dust grains environment, through the incident radiation field, can significantly impact results like the total dust masses. A second project investigated the systematics errors due to the empirical laws used to describe the radiation field that heats the dust grains. I showed that some parameters can be over- or underestimated, while showing good fits to the observations. These results show that it is important to take into consideration the choices made for modelisation in order to accurately determine dust properties in nearby galaxies.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / We present an analysis of the physical and chemical conditions of the planetary nebulae NGC 6302 and NGC 2440 through spatially resolved spectroscopy. Long slit spectrophotometric data were obtained with the Goodman spectrograph attached to the 4.1m SOAR telescope in several different declinations with the slit on the East-West direction. From them, maps and spatial profiles were constructed. Electron densities were calculated from the [S II] and [Ar IV] sensors. For NGC 6302, a peaked distribution was found, with the densest area at the circumstellar region, reaching Ne ≈ 40000cm−3 and decreasing to Ne ≤ 1000cm−3 at the bipolar lobes. Knots with Ne ≈ 2000−3000cm−3 were also observed. In the maps of NGC 2440, densities reach more than 4500cm−3 in the central structures. Structures with 1000 < Ne < 1500cm−3 are associated with the bipolar lobes at P.A.≈ 60◦ and P.A.≈ 85◦. The average values of the electron temperature maps in NGC 6302 were 12304K and 17380K for Te(NII) and Te(OIII), respectively. In NGC 2440, these same values were 11273 K and 13722K, respectively. Small temperature flutuations on the plane of the sky were obtained, with 0,00196 ≤ t2 s (NII) ≤ 0,01198 and 0,00777 ≤ t2 s (OIII) ≤ 0,00181 for NGC 6302, and 0,00107 ≤ t2 s (NII) ≤ 0,00977 and 0,00131 ≤ t2 s (OIII) ≤ 0,01728 for NGC 2440. Abundances of N+, O+, S+, O2+, Ne2+, Ar3+ relative to H+ were determined from collisionally excited lines, and relative abundances of He+ and He2+ from recombination lines. The highest dispersions relative to the mean ionic abundances (50% to 70%) were observed for the N+/H+, O+/H+ and S+/H+ maps. Regions suggesting an inhomogeneous distribution of He and N were observed in the maps of He/H and N+/O+ of the nebulae. In the diagram logHa/[NII] versus logHa/[SII] no indication of shock excitation in any one of the structures of these objects was found in the spatial scale of our analysis. / Apresentamos uma análise das condições físicas e químicas das nebulosas planetárias NGC 6302 e NGC 2440 através de espectroscopia espacialmente resolvida. Dados espectrofotométricos de fenda longa foram obtidos com o espectrógrafo Goodman acoplado ao telescópio SOAR de 4,1m em várias declinações diferentes com a fenda na direção Leste-Oeste. A partir deles, mapas e perfis espaciais foram construídos. Densidades eletrônicas foram calculadas a partir dos sensores [S II] e [Ar IV]. Para NGC 6302, uma distribuição de pico foi encontrada, com a área mais densa na região circum-estelar, atingindo Ne ≈ 40000cm−3 e diminuindo para Ne ≤ 1000cm−3 nos lóbulos bipolares. Condensações com Ne ≈ 2000−3000cm−3 foram também observadas. Nos mapas de NGC 2440, as densidades chegam a mais de 4500cm−3 nas estruturas centrais. Estruturas com 1000 < Ne < 1500cm−3 são associadas com os lóbulos bipolares em P.A.≈ 60◦ e P.A.≈ 85◦. Os valores médios dos mapas de temperatura eletrônica de NGC 6302 foram 12304K e 17380K para Te(NII) e Te(OIII), respectivamente. Em NGC 2440, estes mesmos parâmetros foram 11273K e 13722K, respectivamente. Pequenas flutuações de temperatura no plano do céu foram obtidas, com 0,00196 ≤ t2 s (NII) ≤ 0,01198 e 0,00777 ≤ t2 s (OIII) ≤ 0,00181 para NGC 6302, e 0,00107 ≤ t2 s (NII) ≤ 0,00977 e 0,00131 ≤ t2 s (OIII) ≤ 0,01728 para NGC 2440. Abundâncias de N+, O+, S+, O2+, Ne2+, Ar3+ relativas ao H+ foram determinadas a partir de linhas excitadas colisionalmente, e abundâncias relativas de He+ e He2+ a partir de linhas de recombinação. As maiores dispersões em relação às abundâncias iônicas médias (50% a 70%) foram observadas para os mapas N+/H+, O+/H+ e S+/H+. Regiões que sugerem uma distribuição inomogênea de He e N foram observadas nos mapas de He/H e N+/O+ das nebulosas. No diagrama logHa/[NII] versus logHa/[SII] nenhuma indicação de excitação por choque em qualquer uma das estruturas destes objetos foi encontrada na escala espacial de nossa análise.

L’hélium, deuxième élément le plus abondant de l’univers après l’hydrogène (He/H ~ 1/10), n’a étonnamment jamais été observé sous une autre forme que celle d'atomes neutres ou ionisés dans le milieu interstellaire (MIS). L’hélium étant un gaz noble peu réactif, sa non-observation au sein d’un édifice moléculaire neutre est compréhensible mais cela est plus surprenant pour des espèces chargées positivement comme HeH+, [HeH3]+ ou CHe2+. La première partie de cette thèse a pour but de proposer des raisons chimiques à cette non-observation à l’aide de calculs de chimie quantique de haut niveau (CASPT2) couplés à des calculs d’association radiative. Au vu des résultats sur les mécanismes de destruction de HeH+, nous suggérons une zone du MIS où il serait envisageable de le détecter.La seconde partie de ce travail porte sur la possibilité de détection de variations temporelles des constantes fondamentales de la physique. En 1999, Webb et al., après analyse de la lumière issue de quasars lointains, affirmèrent que la constante de structure fine α pouvait avoir été plus faible par le passé. Aucune étude postérieure ne vint confirmer ce résultat. Il était donc important de déterminer théoriquement dans quelle mesure une telle variation affecterait le spectre électronique de petites molécules primordiales afin d’en évaluer la détectabilité par les instruments actuels. Nous avons pour cela mis au point un protocole ab initio qui évalue le décalage spectral induit par une variation d’α. Les calculs (niveau MRCI) montrent qu’une variation d’α de l’ordre de grandeur de ce que Webb et al. auraient détecté induirait des déplacements de raies non décelables par les télescopes actuels. / Despite Helium is the second most abundant element in the Universe (He/H ~ 1/10), it has never been observed in any other forms than that of an atom or an ion in the InterStellar Medium (ISM). Since He is a noble gas, its non-observation as part of neutral molecular systems is understandable, but it is quite surprising for positively charged species like HeH+, [HeH3]+ or CHe2+. The first part of this study aims at finding a chemical reason for such a non-observation and in particular for the three ions mentioned above. For that purpose, we have computed high level quality (CASPT2) energy hyper-surfaces and performed radiative association calculations. Finally, we are able to suggest a region of the ISM where the detection of HeH+ might be achieved.The second part of this work deals with the possibility that the fundamental constants could be time-dependent. In 1999, Webb et al., analyzing the quasar emissions, claimed that the fine structure constant α could have been smaller in the past, but this result has not been confirmed. Thus it seemed necessary to determine theoretically how much such a variation could affect the electronic spectra of some primordial molecules in order to determine whether such variations might be detectable or not with the current observational instrumentation. For that purpose, we have developed an ab initio protocol to evaluate the shift induced by a variation of α. High level quantum chemistry calculations (MRCI) show that a variation of α of the same order of magnitude than that reported by Webb et al., would induce shifts that are not detectable by the current telescopes.

The use of Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) as distance indicators is essential for studying the expansion history of the Universe and for exploring the nature of dark energy. However, a lack of understanding of the progenitor systems and the empirically derived colour-brightness corrections represent severe limitations for SNe Ia as cosmological probes. In this thesis, we study how dust along the line of sight towards SNe Ia affects the observed light over a wide range of wavelengths; from X-rays to infrared. Unless properly corrected for, the existence of intergalactic dust will introduce a redshift dependent magnitude offset to standard candle sources and bias the cosmological parameter estimates as derived from observations of SNe Ia. We model the optical extinction and X-ray scattering properties of intergalactic dust grains to constrain the intergalactic opacity using a combined analysis of observed quasar colours and measurements of the soft X-ray background. We place upper limits on the extinction AB(z = 1) &lt; 0.10 - 0.25 mag, and the dust density parameter Ωdust &lt; 10−5 − 10−4 (ρgrain/3 g cm−3), for models with RV &lt; 12 − ∞, respectively. Dust in the host galaxies, and dust that may reside in the circumstellar (CS) environment, have important implications for the observed colours of SNe Ia. Using the Hubble Space Telescope and several ground based telescopes, we measure the extinction law, from UV to NIR, for a sample of six nearby SNe Ia. The SNe span a range of E(B − V ) ≈ 0.1 − 1.4 mag and RV  ≈ 1.5 − 2.7, showing a diversity of dust extinction parameters. We present mid- and far-infrared (IR) observations for a number of SNe Ia, obtained with the Herschel Space Observatory and Spitzer Space Telescope, addressing CS dust as an explanation for “peculiar” extinction towards some SNe Ia. No excess IR emission is detected, limiting CS dust masses, Mdust &lt; 10−5 solar masses. In particular, the timely appearance of SN 2014J in M82 - the closest SN Ia in several decades - allows for detailed studies, across an unprecedented wavelength range, of its lightcurve and spectral evolution along with the host galaxy and CS environment. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 5: Manuscript. Paper 6: Manuscript.</p>