O presente trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar o comportamento da chapa de latão 70/30 para o processo de Estampagem Incremental de Chapas (ISF - Incremental Sheet Forming), baseado nos parâmetros: ângulo de parede (ψ), passo vertical ( Z) e estratégia do caminho da ferramenta. Os experimentos baseiam-se na variante da Estampagem Incremental denominada Estampagem Incremental com Ponto Simples (SPIF - Single Point Incremental Forming). Foram realizados 18 ensaios usando uma ferramenta de estampar com raio (RT) de 5 mm. Para execução dos testes práticos, foram utilizados os recursos: softwares CAD/CAM, centro de usinagem CNC com três eixos, matriz incremental, ferramenta de estampagem incremental e um dispositivo prensa chapas. Além disso, o acabamento da superfície conformada foi medido através do parâmetro de rugosidade RZ nos principais ensaios, bem como a medição das deformações verdadeiras (j) e da espessura (s1). Os testes práticos demonstraram que a estratégia de usinagem espiral proporcionou um maior ângulo de parede, comparado à estratégia paralela de contorno. / This study aims to evaluate the behavior of 70/30 brass plate to the process of Incremental Sheet Forming - ISF, based on the parameters: wall angle (ψ), vertical step ( Z) and tool path strategy. The experiments were based on a variation of the ISF process, called SPIF (Single Point Incremental Forming). Eighteen tests were conducted using a punching tool with a radius (RT) of 5 mm. For the execution of practical tests, the resources were used: CAD / CAM software, CNC machining center with three axis. It was also used an incremental matrix, a tool for incremental forming and a sheet-press device. In addition, the surface finish was measured by RZ roughness parameter in the main tests, the same way the measurement of true strains (φ) and thickness (s1). The practice tests showed that the spiral machining strategy has provided a greater wall angle, compared to the parallel strategy contour.

O presente trabalho possui o objetivo de avaliar a aplicabilidade da metrologia em uma ferramenta de estampagem incremental de chapas. Para o estudo foi confeccionada uma ferramenta de estampagem com rebaixos em seu corpo cilíndrico para a fixação dos sensores que mediram a deformação relativa. As análises apresentadas nesta pesquisa representam os cuidados e processos necessários ao uso de extensômetros aliado a um processo de fabricação mecânica. No presente estudo define-se a calibração de um sistema de medição da deformação superficial da ferramenta de estampagem com auxílio da Extensometria. Para validar os resultados obtidos pelos métodos da instrumentação das medidas das deformações e forças no processo de estampagem incremental foram utilizados os métodos de Cálculos Analíticos e Simulação Numérica por meio de softwares de Elementos Finitos. No método de medida se considerou parâmetros que podem comprometer os valores medidos tais como a medida da temperatura utilizando equipamentos termovisor. Além disso, foram realizados 04 (quatro) ensaios preliminares com o intuito de avaliar a medição de forma satisfatória nos eixos X e Y do processo de estampagem incremental, efetuando análises das forças nesses eixos em tração e compressão. A estampagem incremental ocorreu por meio de um total de 09 (nove) Ensaios variando-se ângulo de parede (ψ) e espessura das chapas (s0). Os experimentos baseiam-se na variante de estampagem incremental denominada Estampagem Incremental de Ponto Simples (SPIF – Single Point Incremental Forming). Para a execução dos testes práticos foram utilizados recursos de hardware como Ponte Wheatstone, extensômetros, Termovisor, Centro de Usinagem CNC, matriz incremental, ferramenta de estampagem incremental e um dispositivo prensa chapas. Além de recursos de software CAD/CAM, DAQ (Data Acquisition System), Análise de Elementos Finitos. E recursos de cálculos analíticos como forma comprobatória de resultados. A partir dos procedimentos executados junto com aparato tecnológico foi possível efetuar as análises e medições das forças na ferramenta de estampagem incrementa com referência aos eixos X e Y. Demonstrando neste a aplicabilidade de extensometria para leitura e análise de forças no processo de ISF. / This present work has the objective of assessing the applicability of instrumentation science in an incremental forming tool. For this study was made a tool with recesses on its cylindrical body as a means of fixing the strain sensors. The study presented demonstrate some of the warning and processes required the use of Strain Gages combined with a mechanical manufacturing process. In the present study is defined as an acceptable calibration measuring system with the aid of Extensometry. To validate the results obtained by the methods of instrumentation measurements of the deformations and forces in incremental sheet forming process were used Analytical Calculations and Numerical Simulation using Finite Elements. The measurement method was considered parameters that can compromise the measured values such as temperature measurement devices using thermometer. In addition, we conducted four (04) preliminary tests in order to evaluate the measurement system in satisfactory form with measured variables such as X and Y axes. We analyses the traction and compression forces in both axes. After the preliminary step, was performed a total of nine (09) tests with incremental sheet forming process, varying wall angle (ψ) and the thickness (s0). The experiments are based on the Single Point Incremental Forming - SPIF. For the implementation of the practical tests were used hardware resources such as CNC Machining Center, Wheatstone Bridge, Strain Gauges, Thermal Imager, incremental matrix and incremental forming tool. Besides, we used softwares such as CAD/CAM, DAQ (Data Acquisition System) and Finite Element Analysis. From the technological procedures perform with apparatus was possible do carry out the analyzes and measurement of forces in incremental sheet forming tool increases about to the axes X and Y. Demonstrating the applicability of the extensometry for reading and analyzing forces in the ISF process.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar o comportamento da chapa de latão 70/30 para o processo de Estampagem Incremental de Chapas (ISF - Incremental Sheet Forming), baseado nos parâmetros: ângulo de parede (ψ), passo vertical ( Z) e estratégia do caminho da ferramenta. Os experimentos baseiam-se na variante da Estampagem Incremental denominada Estampagem Incremental com Ponto Simples (SPIF - Single Point Incremental Forming). Foram realizados 18 ensaios usando uma ferramenta de estampar com raio (RT) de 5 mm. Para execução dos testes práticos, foram utilizados os recursos: softwares CAD/CAM, centro de usinagem CNC com três eixos, matriz incremental, ferramenta de estampagem incremental e um dispositivo prensa chapas. Além disso, o acabamento da superfície conformada foi medido através do parâmetro de rugosidade RZ nos principais ensaios, bem como a medição das deformações verdadeiras (j) e da espessura (s1). Os testes práticos demonstraram que a estratégia de usinagem espiral proporcionou um maior ângulo de parede, comparado à estratégia paralela de contorno. / This study aims to evaluate the behavior of 70/30 brass plate to the process of Incremental Sheet Forming - ISF, based on the parameters: wall angle (ψ), vertical step ( Z) and tool path strategy. The experiments were based on a variation of the ISF process, called SPIF (Single Point Incremental Forming). Eighteen tests were conducted using a punching tool with a radius (RT) of 5 mm. For the execution of practical tests, the resources were used: CAD / CAM software, CNC machining center with three axis. It was also used an incremental matrix, a tool for incremental forming and a sheet-press device. In addition, the surface finish was measured by RZ roughness parameter in the main tests, the same way the measurement of true strains (φ) and thickness (s1). The practice tests showed that the spiral machining strategy has provided a greater wall angle, compared to the parallel strategy contour.

O presente trabalho estuda o processo de estampagem incremental em chapas de alumínio puro, descrevendo as ferramentas e um suporte prensa chapas. Estuda e pesquisa bibliograficamente e experimentalmente o processo de estampagem incremental. O trabalho apresenta os procedimentos de caracterização utilizados para determinar os limites do processo, aplicáveis para chapas de 0,5 mm de espessura em alumínio puro. A caracterização da chapa, juntamente com o ensaio mecânico de tração e os testes práticos de estampagem fornecerão um panorama da estampagem incremental, para algumas situações diversas sobre o tema. Para a execução dos testes práticos foi fabricado um dispositivo prensa chapas e um punção, matriz incremental e ferramenta de estampagem incremental, também foram feitas adaptações na máquina CNC, centro de usinagem CNC com três eixos. / This paper studies the process of incremental sheet forming, in plates the aluminum pure, describing the tools and support a press plates. Studies and literature search and experimentally the process of stamping incremental. The work presents the characterization of procedures used to determine the limits of the process, applicable to plates of 0.5 mm thick pure aluminum. The characterization of the plate, along with mechanical traction test and practical tests of printing provide an overview of incremental printing, for some different situations on the subject. For the practical implementation of the tests was a device manufactured press plates and a puncture, matrix and incremental tool for stamping incremental, were also made adjustments in the CNC machine, CNC machining center with three axles.

Incremental sheet forming (ISF) is a flexible process where an indenter moves over the surface of a sheet of metal to form a 3D shell incrementally by a progression of localised deformation. Despite extensive research into the process, the deformation mechanics is not fully understood. This thesis presents new insights into the mechanics of ISF applied to two groups of materials: sheet metals and sandwich panels. A new system for measuring tool forces in ISF is commissioned. The system uses six loadcells to measure reaction forces on the workpiece frame. Each force signal has an uncertainty of ±15 N. This is likely to be small in comparison to tool forces measured in ISF. The mechanics of ISF of sheet metals is researched. Through-thickness deformation and strains of copper plates are measured for single-point incremental forming (SPIF) and two-point incremental forming (TPIF). It is shown that the deformation mechanisms of SPIF and TPIF are shear parallel to the tool direction, with both shear and stretching perpendicular to the tool direction. Tool forces are measured and compared throughout the two processes. Tool forces follow similar trends to strains, suggesting that shear parallel to the tool direction is a result of friction between the tool and workpiece. The mechanics of ISF of sandwich panels is investigated. The mechanical viability of applying ISF to various sandwich panel designs is evaluated by observing failure modes and damage under two simple tool paths. ISF is applicable to metal/polymer/metal sandwich panels. This is because the cores and faceplates are ductile and largely incompressible, and therefore survive local indentation during ISF without collapse. Through-thickness deformation, tool forces and applicability of the sine law for prediction of wall thickness are measured and compared for a metal/polymer/metal sandwich panel and a monolithic sheet metal. The mechanical results for ISF of sheet metals transfer closely to sandwich panels. Hence, established knowledge and process implementation procedures derived for ISF of monolithic sheet metals may be used in the future for ISF of sandwich panels.

La miniaturisation des composants est aujourd’hui un challenge mondial. La fabrication de ces composants est rendue difficile par un certain nombre de phénomènes liés aux effets d’échelle. Il est ainsi nécessaire de répondre à ces contraintes de réduction d’échelle en termes de conception, de réalisation et de fonctionnement de ces systèmes. Cette étude aborde la problématique de la miniaturisation des procédés et plus particulièrement du procédé de micro-formage incrémental « mono-point » (micro-SPIF) à travers des études expérimentales et numériques. Le micro-formage incrémental de tôles est présenté comme une approche intéres sante de fabrication de structures minces. La géométrie désirée est assurée par la trajectoire d’un outil imposant une déformation locale sur la tôle serrée en son contour. Dans un premier temps, une approcheexpérimentale consistant à analyser le comportement mécanique des éprouvettes en alliage de cuivre avec différentes tailles de grains par des essais de traction a été proposée. L’interaction entre la géométrie et la microstructure est évaluée à l’aide du ratio de l'épaisseur par la taille moyenne de grains Φ=t/d. Un pilote de formage incrémental « mono-point » instrumenté a été également développé. Une campagne d'essais expérimentaux de micro-SPIF a été ainsi réalisée sur des flans par différentes tailles de grains afin d'étudier les effets de la microstructure sur la géométrie, l’état de surface, la distribution des épaisseurs et sur l’évolution des efforts. Dans un second temps, un modèle paramétrique de type éléments finis simulant le micro-SPIF a été développé en langage MATLAB®. Le code de calculs LS-DYNA® a été utilisé pour simuler le procédé en adaptant une loi de comportement élastoplastique. Ensuite, les résultats obtenus en termes de géométrie,d’évolution de l’épaisseur et d’efforts de formage sont confrontés aux relevés expérimentaux afin de valider la procédure numérique. Dans un troisième temps, une loi élastoplastique endommageable décrivant les principaux phénomènes physiques intervenant durant le formage des métaux en grandes déformations a été présentée. Une procédure d'identification de cette loi basée sur une analyse inverse de l’effort au cours du procédé de micro-SPIF a été proposée et des tests de validation du modèle ont été discutés. Enfin, une analyse de l'identifiabilité locale basée sur un indice de multicolinéarité des fonctions de sensibilité est effectuée pour valider la procédure d’identification paramétrique et quantifier l’intérêt du procédé pour la caractérisation quantitative des tôlesminces en très grandes déformations / The miniaturization of components is now a world challenge. The manufacture of these componentsis difficult because of several phenomena related to the so-called size effect. It is thus necessary to fulfill theserequirements of scaling down in terms of design, implementation and operations. This study deals with theproblems of miniaturization processes, especially the “micro-Single Point" Incremental Forming process (micro-SPIF) through experimental and numerical studies. Micro-single point incremental forming process is presentedas an interesting approach for thin structures manufacturing. The desired geometry is provided by the tool pathrequiring a local deformation in a sheet clamped along its contour. Firstly, an experimental approach consistingin analyzing the mechanical behaviour of copper alloy specimens with various grain sizes by tensile tests hasbeen proposed. The interaction between the geometry and the microstructure is evaluated using the ratio of thethickness by the average grain size Φ=t/d. An instrumented micro-SPIF device was also developed. A set ofsingle point incremental sheet forming experimental tests were conducted on blanks with several grain sizesusing two forming strategies in order to study the effect of microstructure on the geometry, the surface topology,the thickness distribution and the forming forces evolutions. Secondly, a finite element parametric model capableof simulating the micro-SPIF process was developed in MATLAB® language. The commercial LS-DYNA® codewas used to simulate this process using an elastic-plastic constitutive law. Then, the results obtained in terms ofgeometry, thickness evolution and forming forces are compared with the experimental results in order to validatethe numerical procedure. Thirdly, an elastic-plastic damage model describing the main physical phenomenainvolved during metal forming by large deformation was presented. An identification procedure of thisbehaviour law based on the inverse analysis of the axial forming force during micro-SPIF process was proposedand several validation tests of the model were discussed. Finally, local identifiability analysis based on an indexof multicollinearity of the sensitivity functions was performed in order to validate the parameters identificationprocedure and quantify the advantage of the process for quantitative mechanical behaviour characterization ofthin metal sheets at large strains

Incremental sheet forming (ISF) is a novel metal shaping technology that is economically viable for low-volume manufacturing, customisation and rapid-prototyping. It uses a small tool that is controlled by a computer-numerically controlled sequence and the path taken by this tool over the sheet defines the product geometry. Little is currently known about how to design the tool-path to minimise geometric errors in the formed part. The work here addresses this problem by developing a model based tool-path optimisation scheme for ISF. The key issue is how to generate an efficient model for ISF to use within a path optimisation routine, since current simulation methods are too slow. A proportion of this thesis is dedicated to evaluating the applicability of the rigid plastic assumption for this purpose. Three numerical models have been produced: one based on small strain deformation, one based on limit analysis theory and another that approximates the sheet to a network of rods. All three models are formulated and solved as second-order cone programs (SOCP) and the limit analysis based model is the first demonstration of an upper-bound shell finite element (FE) problem solved as an SOCP. The models are significantly faster than commercially available FE software and simulations are compared with experimental and numerical data, from which it is shown the rigid plastic assumption is suitable for modelling deformation in ISF. The numerical models are still too slow for the path optimisation scheme, so a novel linearised model based on the concept of spatial impulse responses is also formulated and used in an optimal control based tool-path optimisation scheme for producing axisymmetric products with ISF. Off-line and on-line versions of the scheme are implemented on an ISF machine and it is shown that geometric errors are significantly reduced when using the proposed method. This work provides a new structured framework for tool-path design in ISF and it is also a novel use of feedback to compensate for geometrical errors in ISF.

A estampagem incremental é um processo de deformação incremental de chapa que pode ser classificado em três modos distintos: estampagem incremental sem matriz, estampagem incremental com matriz parcial e estampagem com matriz total. A deformação ocorre devido ao contato entre a ferramenta e a chapa, localmente e progressivamente, ao longo de uma trajetória pré-definida. A chapa permanece presa a suportes que fixam as suas extremidades de maneira a impedir os deslocamentos provocados pela passagem da ferramenta. A primeira parte deste trabalho compreende estudos em elementos finitos, usando o software LS-Dyna, sobre a trajetória das deformações na estampagem incremental para a fabricação de flanges em chapas previamente furadas de liga de alumínio AA1050. Foram realizados testes de contato e de linha que permitiram definir parâmetros da simulação. Os resultados para as deformações foram confrontados com os resultados obtidos experimentalmente por outros autores e permitiram verificar o comportamento das deformações nos flanges. As deformações crescem montonicamente até os valores máximos. Este resultado confirma a teoria de que na estampagem incremental de chapas a fratura ocorre sem o prévio aparecimento da estricção. A segunda parte deste trabalho trata do desenvolvimento de um suporte modular aplicável a estampagem incremental, tanto na sua variante sem matriz quanto com matriz, com o intuito de aumentar a flexibilidade do processo com relação à geometria da peça a ser deformada. Foi empregada a técnica de análise de valor objetivando alcançar a melhor funcionalidade do sistema. Como resultado foi obtido um suporte modular que atende os requisitos de rigidez, flexibilidade, modularidade, agilidade na troca da chapa a ser deformada e simplicidade construtiva. / The sheet incremental forming can be classified into three basic configurations, depending on the number of contact points between the sheet, tool and die (when present). Single incremental forming (absence of specific dies) and two point incremental forming (presence of a partial or full die) can be distinguished. The process makes use of a simple, low-cost, hemispherical tipped tool to precisely and progressively shape a blank into a metal sheet along a predefined tool path. The sheet is fixed onto the rig to prevent lateral displacements caused by tool movement. The first part of this work includes studies about finite elements, using the LS-Dyna software, applied to deformation path in hole-flanging produced by incremental sheet forming. The investigation was carried out using aluminum alloy AA1050. Contact and line numerical results support simulation parameters choices. The results from the strains were compared with empirical ones obtained by other authors. The results showed the deformation mechanics behavior of the hole-flanging. The strain paths of hole-flanging produced by incremental sheet forming grew linearly and monotonically from the origin to the maximum achievable strains. This result confirms the absence of local necking along plane strain directions. The second part of this work deals with the development of a modular rig that can be applied to dieless, partial or total die single point incremental forming in order to increase the flexibility of the process concerning the geometry of the part to be deformed. The result was a modular rig with constructive simplicity and requirements of stiffness, flexibility and modularity when exchanging sheets.

Este trabalho apresenta um modelo inovador de coletor solar plano, com placa absorvedora fabricada por Estampagem Incremental e Soldagem FSW (Friction Stir Welding). Esta placa absorvedora é constituída de duas chapas de alumínio AA1200-H14 com espessura de 1 mm, estampadas e soldadas em simetria, a fim de que na união das chapas sejam deixados canais para passagem de água. Neste estudo foi realizada a caracterização do material por Ensaio de Tração e Ensaio Nakajima. Para determinação dos parâmetros de Estampagem Incremental foram realizados 16 experimentos com ferramenta de diâmetro df = 9,5 mm, variando a rotação de N = 50 rpm a 800 rpm e o incremento vertical de Δz = 2 mm a 0,2 mm, mantendo o avanço em = 250 mm/min. E também foram realizados 3 experimentos com ferramenta df = 22 mm, variando o incremento vertical de Δz = 2 mm a 0,5 mm, mantendo a rotação em N = 50 rpm e o avanço em = 250 mm/min. Para determinação dos parâmetros de Soldagem FSW foram realizados 4 experimentos com ferramenta de ombro de diâmetro 8 mm e pino roscado M3x0,5, mantendo a rotação em N = 1500 rpm e variando o avanço entre = 100 mm/min a 400 mm/min. Em seguida foi fabricado um protótipo de placa absorvedora de coletor solar com área de 0,12 m². Nos experimentos realizados foi constatado que é possível obter maiores deformações na Estampagem Incremental do que na Estampagem Convencional e que as deformações são mais elevadas quando se utiliza menores diâmetros, maiores rotações e menores incrementos verticais da ferramenta. Na Soldagem FSW não foi constatada influência na qualidade do cordão de solda em relação à variação do avanço da ferramenta. Neste estudo também se verificou que é possível fabricar protótipos de placas absorvedoras de coletores solares pelos processos de Estampagem Incremental e Soldagem FSW. No entanto, para coletores em tamanho comercial, novos estudos são necessários para melhorar a forma de fixação das chapas durante a Soldagem FSW. / This work presents an innovative model of flat plate solar collector, with absorber plate manufactured using Incremental Sheet Forming (ISF) and Friction Stir Welding (FSW). This absorber plate consists of two AA1200-H14 aluminum sheets with a thickness of 1 mm, stamped and welded in symmetry, in order to leave channels for the passage of water. In this study the characterization of the material by Nakajima Test and Traction Test was performed. In order to determine the parameters of ISF, 16 experiments were performed with a tool of diameter df = 9.5 mm, varying the rotation speed of N = 50 rpm at 800 rpm and the step down of Δz = 2 mm to 0.2 mm, maintaining the feed rate at = 250 mm/min. Also, 3 experiments with tool df = 22 mm were performed, varying the step down of Δz = 2 mm to 0.5 mm, maintaining the rotation speed at N = 50 rpm and the feed rate at = 250 mm/min. For determination of FSW parameters, 4 experiments with 8 mm diameter shoulder tool and M3x0.5 pin were performed, maintaining the rotation speed at N = 1500 rpm and varying the feed rate from = 100 mm/min to 400 mm/min. A prototype solar collector absorber plate with a 0.12 m² area was then manufactured. In the experiments carried out, it was found that it is possible to obtain greater deformations in the ISF than in the Conventional Stamping and that the deformations are higher when using smaller diameters, higher rotations and smaller step downs of the tool. In FSW, no influence was observed in the quality of the weld bead in relation to the variation of the tool feed rate. In this study it was also verified that it is possible to manufacture prototypes of solar collector absorber plates by the processes of ISF and FSW. However, for commercial size collectors, further studies are needed to improve the way the plates are fixed during FSW.

O presente trabalho investiga o comportamento da chapa de latão C268, com 0,50 mm de espessura, quando exposto ao processo de Estampagem Incremental de Chapas de Metal (Incremental Sheet Metal Forming -ISMF). Especificamente para a pesquisa, foram utilizadas as modalidades de Estampagem Incremental com Ponto Simples (Single Point Incremental Forming- SPIF) e Estampagem Incremental de Múltiplos Passes (Multi Pass Single Point Incremental Forming- MSPIF). Os experimentos foram baseados em uma geometria de tronco de pirâmide de base quadrada com 100 mm de lado e 45 mm de profundidade. Para as estratégias de estampagem foi atribuído, a estampagem helicoidal. Como resultado principal, foi verificado o ângulo de parede máximo atingido por cada processo de estampagem incremental. Adicionalmente, ensaios de tração, análise de deformações e de rugosidade da chapa de latão foram realizados. Todos os seus resultados estão detalhados na investigação. Para os parâmetros adotados nestes experimentos, o ângulo de parede obtido por SPIF foi maior do que pelo estudo proposto por MSPIF. / The present study investigates the performance of the brass plate C-268 with 0.50 mm thickness, when exposed to Incremental Sheet Metal Forming (ISMF). Specifically for research, it was used the modalities Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF) and Multi Pass Single Point Incremental Forming (MSPIF). The experiments were based on a truncated pyramid geometry with square base 100 mm side and 45 mm depth. For forming strategies has been assigned, the helical forming. As the main outcome, it was found the maximum wall angle achieved by each process of incremental printing. In addition, tensile tests, analysis of deformation and roughness of the brass sheet were performed. All results are detailed in the investigation. For the parameters used in these experiments, the wall angle obtained by SPIF is greater than the study proposed by MSPIF.