This is a study of the production, content, distribution, and reception of different religious films in Zimbabwe, with an emphasis on the audience’s initial reception of the films. Informants’ self-identified religious beliefs and their reception of these selected films are analyzed primarily by using qualitative methods to understand better the interplay between film and religion in Zimbabwe. The films studied in this research are The Jesus Film (1979) created by Campus Crusade for Christ and indigenous, short Jesus films created locally in Zimbabwe in 2012. In order to answer the central research questions of this study, two main approaches are employed: the first is a holistic approach to the analysis of these films. The primary question within this approach is: in what ways do the production, content, and distribution of The Jesus Film and indigenous, short Jesus films affect the reception of the films among informants in Zimbabwe today? The second approach specifically addresses the interchange between the audience members’ self-identified religious beliefs and their reception of the films. There are two central research questions within this approach. First, in what ways may pre-existing perceptions of Jesus shape informants’ responses to and interpretations of Jesus as he is portrayed in The Jesus Film and in indigenous, short Jesus films in Zimbabwe today? Secondly, how might the viewing of these films affect those perceptions of Jesus? Based upon the careful analysis of the original data that emerges from the field work of this research, the conclusion provides a series of answers to these questions, revealing new insights into the interplay of film and religion in Zimbabwe.

This dissertation is an ethnohistorical account of the advent of Christianity, how it was taught and practiced, on the upper Fraser-Skeena watershed and adjacent North Pacific littoral between the years 1741 and 1873. The region was a focal point of sustained international colonial and commercial attention, and missionaries of various European Christianities played an important role in the introduction of Christianity in the vast socio-geographical space. However, they were not the only teachers and practitioners. Lay Christianities, that is, Christianity as practiced by the various workers in the maritime and continental fur trades, and later by Russian, Spanish, British, Canadian and American colonists were perspicuous features of the social field. While the presence of lay Christianities is often underdetermined in the North American historical and ethnographic records, I argue it figured significantly into the quality of social relations between newcomers and peoples Indigenous to the region. Indigenous peoples were initially interested in Christian form and content. Later those interests were augmented by Indigenous prophets interested in indigenizing Christianity; a task which entailed ensuring that Christianity originated locally. When the Hudson’s Bay Company emerged as the chief commercial operator in the region at the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, Indigenous Christianity was mobilized as a religion of resistance against the Company’s incursion into local social spaces and in the ensuing struggle with both the Company and Christian missionaries.

This dissertation is an ethnohistorical account of the advent of Christianity, how it was taught and practiced, on the upper Fraser-Skeena watershed and adjacent North Pacific littoral between the years 1741 and 1873. The region was a focal point of sustained international colonial and commercial attention, and missionaries of various European Christianities played an important role in the introduction of Christianity in the vast socio-geographical space. However, they were not the only teachers and practitioners. Lay Christianities, that is, Christianity as practiced by the various workers in the maritime and continental fur trades, and later by Russian, Spanish, British, Canadian and American colonists were perspicuous features of the social field. While the presence of lay Christianities is often underdetermined in the North American historical and ethnographic records, I argue it figured significantly into the quality of social relations between newcomers and peoples Indigenous to the region. Indigenous peoples were initially interested in Christian form and content. Later those interests were augmented by Indigenous prophets interested in indigenizing Christianity; a task which entailed ensuring that Christianity originated locally. When the Hudson’s Bay Company emerged as the chief commercial operator in the region at the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, Indigenous Christianity was mobilized as a religion of resistance against the Company’s incursion into local social spaces and in the ensuing struggle with both the Company and Christian missionaries.

abstract: This thesis is an ethnographic account of the religious practices of the Ammatoa, a Konjo-speaking community of approximately 4600 people living in the southeast uplands of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. It examines aspects of Ammatoan rituals, cosmology, culture, economy, and politics that, from their point of view, are also considered religious. For the purpose of this dissertation, I understand religion to be ways of relationship between human beings and their fellow humans: the living and the dead, other beings, such as animals, plants, forests, mountains, rivers, and invisible entities such as gods and spirits. This conception of religion provides a better framework for understanding Ammatoan religion because for them religion includes many aspects of everyday life. The Ammatoans divide their land into an inner and an outer territory. The former is the constrained domains for their indigenous religion and the latter is more open to interaction with the outside world. The politics of territorial division has enabled Ammatoans to preserve their indigenous religion and navigate pressures from outside powers (i.e., Islam and modernity). The politics is, in part, a religious manifestation of Ammatoan oral tradition, the Pasang ri Kajang, which is the authoritative reference for all elements of everyday life. By following the tenets of the Pasang, Ammatoans seek to lead a life of kamase-masea, a life of simplicity. I explore how Ammatoans apply, challenge, and manipulate their understandings of the Pasang. Ammatoans demonstrate their religiosity and commitment to the Pasang through participation in rituals. This dissertation explores the diversity of Ammatoan rituals, and examines the connections between these rituals and the values of the Pasang through an extended analysis of one particular large-scale ritual, akkatterek (haircut). This ritual serves to incorporate a child into the wider Ammatoan cosmos. I also explore the encounters between Ammatoan indigenous religion, Islam, and modernity. I argue that the local manifestation of the concepts of Islam and modernity have both influenced and been influenced by Ammatoan indigenous religion. I conclude that despite their conversion to Islam and the intrusion of modernity, Ammatoan indigenous religion persists, albeit as an element of a hybrid cultural complex. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Religious Studies 2012

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo bibliográfico dos povos indígenas em contexto geral e tem como a temática principal um estudo referente à espiritualidade indígena dos índios Wari Pacaás Nova situados no município de Guajará-mirim no estado de Rondônia. Através desse estudo será abordado o histórico desse povo, localização e as práticas rituais de costumes ancestrais. O hábito da prática do canibalismo fúnebre era muito forte, atualmente encontra-se na memória e na lembrança de muitos Wari Pacaás Nova. Os índios Wari são povos que têm a ligação forte com a natureza, um dos fatores que mais influenciou em relação as suas crenças foi a chegada dos missionários cristãos e protestantes, que tentaram catequizá-los. Este processo de catequização durou por muito tempo. Na época o povoado indígena era muito resistente a mudança, devido à persistência dos missionários, os Wari passaram a ser coagidos e enganados, logo depois alguns índios passaram a acreditar no Deus do homem branco. Os missionários diziam que os processos de rituais do Pajé na cura de algumas enfermidades eram de cunho demoníaco, porque o pajé era incorporado pelos espíritos dos antepassados ou de animais, pois os Wari acreditavam que os espíritos vinham para curar e/ou revelar algo. Esta monografia pretende demonstrar a resistência dos Wari no âmbito da espiritualidade indígena nos dias atuais como fator integrador da cultura e da vida desses povos. / This research presents a bibliographical study regarding the spirituality of the indigenous Native-Americans, the Wari Pacaás, located in the city of Guajará-Mirim, in the state of Rondônia. The research will address the history of this people culture, spiritual locations and ritual practices of ancient customs. The practice of funerary cannibalism was very strong; the Wari Pacaás Nova did this ritual to preserve the memories of their ancestors. In their ancient traditions, the Wari Indians had a strong connection with nature, however, one of the factors that most influenced their beliefs was the arrival of Christian missionaries. When these missionaries arrived, they began the process of converting the Wari to Catholicism. The process of converting the Wari took a long time. At the time the Wari Pacaás were very resistant to change, but due to the persistence of the missionaries, the Wari eventually converted; some of the Natives came believe in the God of the missionaries. The missionaries said that the processes of the shaman rituals in curing some diseases were of evil nature. To the Wari, the shaman was a represented by the spirits of ancestors or animals - the Wari believed that these spirits came to heal or reveal something. This briefing is intended to demonstrate the strength of the Wari in the context of Indian spirituality as a factor integrating the culture and life of these peoples.

Text in German / This study explores the religious responsiveness of the rural Khmer in the location of Snoul, Kratie in Cambodia. After setting a methodological framework, both missiologically and empirically, a historical overview and religious developments are presented. With the methods of qualitative social research, the religiosity of the rural Khmer is elicited, by using the religious dimensions of rituals, experience, knowledge, meaning of life and ethics as described by Glock. The empirical results demonstrate that religious experience is central to the religiosity of the Khmer, through which they hope to achieve joy, peace and success. The religious experience is, however, twofold. One is focused on the present life; the other is future-oriented. Reflecting the empirical findings missiologically, it will be argued, that the missional encounter to the religious context requires a holistic approach: a narrative theology, spiritual encounter with evil powers, and an incarnational ministry as good news to the poor. / Diese Arbeit untersucht die religiöse Ansprechbarkeit der ruralen Khmer in der Lokation Snoul, Kratie in Kambodscha. Nachdem die methodologischen Voraussetzungen, missiologisch als auch empirisch erörtert sind, werden ein historischer Überblick und die religiösen Entwicklungen dargelegt. Mit den Methoden der qualitativen Sozialforschung und anhand der Dimensionen von Glock wird die Religiösität der ruralen Khmer eruiert, die das Ritual, Erfahrung, Wissen, Sinn im Leben (Ideologie) und das ethische Verhalten betreffen. Die empirischen Ergebnisse zeigen, dass religiöse Erfahrungen zentral für die Religiösität der Khmer sind, in der nach Freude, Glück und Gelingen (FGG) gestrebt wird. Die religiöse Erfahrung ist aber zweigeteilt: Die eine auf die Gegenwart fokussiert, während die andere zukunftorientiert ist. In der missionstheologischen Reflektion wird festgestellt, dass eine missionale Begegnung mit dem religiösen Kontext, einen ganzheitlichen Zugang verlangt, welche sowohl eine narrative Theologie, eine geistliche Begegnung mit den bösen Mächten und ein inkarnatorischen Dienst als das Evangelium für die Armen, beinhaltet. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / M. Th. (Missiology)

Text in German / This study explores the religious responsiveness of the rural Khmer in the location of Snoul, Kratie in Cambodia. After setting a methodological framework, both missiologically and empirically, a historical overview and religious developments are presented. With the methods of qualitative social research, the religiosity of the rural Khmer is elicited, by using the religious dimensions of rituals, experience, knowledge, meaning of life and ethics as described by Glock. The empirical results demonstrate that religious experience is central to the religiosity of the Khmer, through which they hope to achieve joy, peace and success. The religious experience is, however, twofold. One is focused on the present life; the other is future-oriented. Reflecting the empirical findings missiologically, it will be argued, that the missional encounter to the religious context requires a holistic approach: a narrative theology, spiritual encounter with evil powers, and an incarnational ministry as good news to the poor. / Diese Arbeit untersucht die religiöse Ansprechbarkeit der ruralen Khmer in der Lokation Snoul, Kratie in Kambodscha. Nachdem die methodologischen Voraussetzungen, missiologisch als auch empirisch erörtert sind, werden ein historischer Überblick und die religiösen Entwicklungen dargelegt. Mit den Methoden der qualitativen Sozialforschung und anhand der Dimensionen von Glock wird die Religiösität der ruralen Khmer eruiert, die das Ritual, Erfahrung, Wissen, Sinn im Leben (Ideologie) und das ethische Verhalten betreffen. Die empirischen Ergebnisse zeigen, dass religiöse Erfahrungen zentral für die Religiösität der Khmer sind, in der nach Freude, Glück und Gelingen (FGG) gestrebt wird. Die religiöse Erfahrung ist aber zweigeteilt: Die eine auf die Gegenwart fokussiert, während die andere zukunftorientiert ist. In der missionstheologischen Reflektion wird festgestellt, dass eine missionale Begegnung mit dem religiösen Kontext, einen ganzheitlichen Zugang verlangt, welche sowohl eine narrative Theologie, eine geistliche Begegnung mit den bösen Mächten und ein inkarnatorischen Dienst als das Evangelium für die Armen, beinhaltet. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / M. Th. (Missiology)

This study which is the product of library research and fieldwork seeks, on account of the persistent marginalisation of African Traditional Religion (ATR) in Sierra Leone by Islam and Christianity, to investigate the place of ATR in inter-religious encounters in the country since the advent of Islam and Christianity. As in most of sub-Saharan Africa, ATR is the indigenous religion of Sierra Leone. When the early forebears and later progenitors of Islam and Christianity arrived, they met Sierra Leone indigenes with a remarkable knowledge of God and a structured religious system. Successive Muslim clerics, traders, and missionaries were respectful of and sensitive to the culture and religion of the indigenes who accommodated them and offered them hospitality. This approach resulted in a syncretistic brand of Islam. In contrast, most Christian missionaries adopted an exclusive and insensitive approach to African culture and religiosity. Christianity, especially Protestantism, demanded a complete abandonment of African culture and religion, and a total dedication to Christianity. This attitude has continued by some indigenous clerics and religious leaders to the extent that Sierra Leone Indigenous Religion (SLIR) and it practitioners continue to be marginalised in Sierra Leone's inter-religious dialogue and cooperation. Although the indigenes of Sierra Leone were and continue to be hospitable to Islam and Christianity, and in spite of the fact that SLIR shares affinity with Islam and Christianity in many theological and practical issues, and even though there are many Muslims and Christians who still hold on to traditional spirituality and culture, Muslim and Christian leaders of these immigrant religions are reluctant to include Traditionalists in interfaith issues in the country. The formation and constitution of the Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone (IRCSL) which has local and international recognition did not include ATR. These considerations, then beg the questions: * Why have Muslim and Christian leaders long marginalised ATR, its practices and practitioners from interfaith dialogue and cooperation in Sierra Leone? * What is lacking in ATR that continues to prevent practitioners of Christianity and Islam from officially involving Traditionalists in the socio-religious development of the country? Muslim and Christians have given several factors that are responsible for this exclusion: * The prejudices that they inherited from their forebears * ATR lacks the hallmarks of a true religion * ATR is primitive and economically weak * The fear that the accommodation of ATR will result in syncretism and nominalism * Muslims see no need to dialogue with ATR practitioners, most of whom they considered to be already Muslims Considering the commonalities ATR shares with Islam and Christianity, and the number of Muslims and Christians who still hold on to traditional spirituality, these factors are not justifiable. Although Islam and Christianity are finding it hard to recognise and include ATR in interfaith dialogue and cooperation in Sierra Leone, ATR continues to play a vital role in Sierra Leone's national politics, in the search and maintenance of employment, and in the judicial sector. ATR played a crucial part during and after the civil war. The national government in its Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) report acknowledged the importance and contribution of traditional culture and spirituality during and after the war. Outside of Sierra Leone, the progress in the place and level of the recognition of ATR continues. At varying degrees, the Sociétié Africaine de Culture (SAC) in France, the All Africa Conference of Churches (AACC), the Vatican, and the World Council of Churches, have taken positive steps to recognise and find a place for ATR in their structures. Much about the necessity for dialogue and cooperation with ATR can be learnt in the works and efforts of these secular and religious bodies. If nothing else, there are two main reasons why Islam and Christianity in Sierra Leone must be in dialogue with ATR: * Dialogue of life or in community. People living side-by-side meet and interact personally and communally on a regular basis. They share common resources and communal benefits. These factors compel people to be in dialogue * Dual religiosity. As many Muslims and Christians in Sierra Leone are still holding on to ATR practices, it is crucial for Muslims and Christians to dialogue with ATR practitioners. If Muslims and Christians are serious about meeting and starting a process of dialogue with Traditionalists, certain practical issues have to be considered: * Islam and Christianity have to validate and accept ATR as a true religion and a viable partner in the socio-religious landscape of Sierra Leone * Muslims and Christians must educate themselves about ATR, and the scriptures and teachings of their respective religious traditions in order to relate well with Traditionalists These are starting points that can produce successful results. Although at present Muslims and Christians in Sierra Leone are finding it difficult to initiate dialogue and cooperation with Traditionalists, all hope is not lost. It is now the task of the established IRCSL to ensure the inclusion of ATR. Islam and Christianity must remember that when they came as strangers, ATR, played host to them and has played and continues to play a vital role in providing hospitality, and allowing them to blossom on African soil. / Religious Studies and Arabic / D.Litt. et Phil. (Religious Studies)

This study which is the product of library research and fieldwork seeks, on account of the persistent marginalisation of African Traditional Religion (ATR) in Sierra Leone by Islam and Christianity, to investigate the place of ATR in inter-religious encounters in the country since the advent of Islam and Christianity. As in most of sub-Saharan Africa, ATR is the indigenous religion of Sierra Leone. When the early forebears and later progenitors of Islam and Christianity arrived, they met Sierra Leone indigenes with a remarkable knowledge of God and a structured religious system. Successive Muslim clerics, traders, and missionaries were respectful of and sensitive to the culture and religion of the indigenes who accommodated them and offered them hospitality. This approach resulted in a syncretistic brand of Islam. In contrast, most Christian missionaries adopted an exclusive and insensitive approach to African culture and religiosity. Christianity, especially Protestantism, demanded a complete abandonment of African culture and religion, and a total dedication to Christianity. This attitude has continued by some indigenous clerics and religious leaders to the extent that Sierra Leone Indigenous Religion (SLIR) and it practitioners continue to be marginalised in Sierra Leone's inter-religious dialogue and cooperation. Although the indigenes of Sierra Leone were and continue to be hospitable to Islam and Christianity, and in spite of the fact that SLIR shares affinity with Islam and Christianity in many theological and practical issues, and even though there are many Muslims and Christians who still hold on to traditional spirituality and culture, Muslim and Christian leaders of these immigrant religions are reluctant to include Traditionalists in interfaith issues in the country. The formation and constitution of the Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone (IRCSL) which has local and international recognition did not include ATR. These considerations, then beg the questions: * Why have Muslim and Christian leaders long marginalised ATR, its practices and practitioners from interfaith dialogue and cooperation in Sierra Leone? * What is lacking in ATR that continues to prevent practitioners of Christianity and Islam from officially involving Traditionalists in the socio-religious development of the country? Muslim and Christians have given several factors that are responsible for this exclusion: * The prejudices that they inherited from their forebears * ATR lacks the hallmarks of a true religion * ATR is primitive and economically weak * The fear that the accommodation of ATR will result in syncretism and nominalism * Muslims see no need to dialogue with ATR practitioners, most of whom they considered to be already Muslims Considering the commonalities ATR shares with Islam and Christianity, and the number of Muslims and Christians who still hold on to traditional spirituality, these factors are not justifiable. Although Islam and Christianity are finding it hard to recognise and include ATR in interfaith dialogue and cooperation in Sierra Leone, ATR continues to play a vital role in Sierra Leone's national politics, in the search and maintenance of employment, and in the judicial sector. ATR played a crucial part during and after the civil war. The national government in its Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) report acknowledged the importance and contribution of traditional culture and spirituality during and after the war. Outside of Sierra Leone, the progress in the place and level of the recognition of ATR continues. At varying degrees, the Sociétié Africaine de Culture (SAC) in France, the All Africa Conference of Churches (AACC), the Vatican, and the World Council of Churches, have taken positive steps to recognise and find a place for ATR in their structures. Much about the necessity for dialogue and cooperation with ATR can be learnt in the works and efforts of these secular and religious bodies. If nothing else, there are two main reasons why Islam and Christianity in Sierra Leone must be in dialogue with ATR: * Dialogue of life or in community. People living side-by-side meet and interact personally and communally on a regular basis. They share common resources and communal benefits. These factors compel people to be in dialogue * Dual religiosity. As many Muslims and Christians in Sierra Leone are still holding on to ATR practices, it is crucial for Muslims and Christians to dialogue with ATR practitioners. If Muslims and Christians are serious about meeting and starting a process of dialogue with Traditionalists, certain practical issues have to be considered: * Islam and Christianity have to validate and accept ATR as a true religion and a viable partner in the socio-religious landscape of Sierra Leone * Muslims and Christians must educate themselves about ATR, and the scriptures and teachings of their respective religious traditions in order to relate well with Traditionalists These are starting points that can produce successful results. Although at present Muslims and Christians in Sierra Leone are finding it difficult to initiate dialogue and cooperation with Traditionalists, all hope is not lost. It is now the task of the established IRCSL to ensure the inclusion of ATR. Islam and Christianity must remember that when they came as strangers, ATR, played host to them and has played and continues to play a vital role in providing hospitality, and allowing them to blossom on African soil. / Religious Studies and Arabic / D.Litt. et Phil. (Religious Studies)