The emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) is currently intensely debated issue. Countries with reduction targets of GHG emissions have developed studies to understand the processes and reduce the emissions. Farming is the main source of GHG emissions in Brazil. Among the main products of Brazilian agriculture is cattle, handled mainly in the extensive system, where animals are slaughtered at an average of three to four years and grassland receives little or no cultural tract. Quantification and monitoring of GHG emissions in agricultural systems enable the evaluation of the degree of impact on the environment. This thesis discussed the main sources of greenhouse gases emissions in animal husbandry and the guidelines on research to evaluate alternative sustainable systems of beef production. The main results are the emission factors for tropical conditions from various sources, such as faeces (Chapter 3) and urine (Chapter 4) from the animals, as well as the application of nitrogen fertilizer and lime on pasture (Chapter 5). The climate proved to be a key factor in the control of greenhouse gases, mainly methane (CH4) from the faeces of animals. The emission factors obtained for cattle faeces were 0.03 and 0.08 kg CH4 head-1 year-1 (average) for subtropical and tropical climates, respectively. The use of a generic emission factor in Brazil is not the best option. More studies are needed in different regions to determine the impact of climate on GHG emissions. The emission factor for nitrous oxide (N2O) from urine was 0.25 % of total N applied (average), significantly lower than the default factor recommended by the IPCC. The use of nitrification inhibitors under tropical conditions is not recommended, since there were no positive results in reducing the emission of N2O from urine. The use of nitrogen fertilizer led to high N2O emissions, however, the dry matter production of forage also increased with fertilizer application. The balance between dry matter production and N2O emission shows that the application of nitrogen fertilizer can contribute significantly to reducing pasture area, with a total reduction of up to 40 %. Mathematical modeling of the data was also performed, simulating beef production under extensive management in different scenarios for the studied area (Chapter 6). The CH4 emission decreased, while the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) and N2O increased due to the simulated intensification. The simulation showed that the intensification in beef production results in lower GHG emissions per kg of beef. Reductions may reach 2 to 57%, depending on the scenario. The intensification also contributes to the reduction of the total area and length of the production cycle. These results show that the intensification practices are a potential mitigation option for the beef sector / A emissão de gases do efeito estufa (GEE) é assunto intensamente debatido atualmente. Países com metas de redução na emissão destes gases têm desenvolvido estudos visando entender os processos e reduzir as emissões. A agropecuária é a principal fonte de emissão de GEE do Brasil. Entre os principais produtos da agropecuária brasileira está o gado de corte, manejado principalmente no sistema extensivo, onde os animais são abatidos em média aos três a quatro anos e a pastagem recebe pouco ou nenhum trato cultural. A quantificação e o monitoramento das emissões de GEE em sistemas agropecuários possibilitam a avaliação do grau de impacto sobre o ambiente. Nesta tese foram discutidas as principais fontes de emissão de gases na pecuária e as diretrizes necessárias na pesquisa para avaliar alternativas sustentáveis dos sistemas de produção da carne. Os principais resultados obtidos são os fatores de emissão para as condições tropicais de diversas fontes, como fezes (Capítulo 3) e urina (Capítulo 4) dos animais, assim como da aplicação de fertilizante e calcário a pasto (Capítulo 5). O clima mostrou-se como um fator chave no controle de GEE proveniente das fezes dos animais, principalmente metano (CH4). Os fatores de emissão para fezes bovinas obtidos foram de 0,03 e 0,08 kg CH4 cabeça-1 ano-1 (média), para os climas subtropical e tropical, respectivamente. O uso de um fator de emissão genérico para o Brasil não é a melhor opção, sendo necessários estudos em diferentes regiões para determinar o impacto do clima na emissão de GEE. O fator de emissão de N2O proveniente da urina foi de 0,25% do total de N aplicado (media), significativamente menor que o fator default recomendado pelo IPCC. O uso de inibidores de nitrificação nas condições tropicais não é recomendada, visto que estes não foram efetivos na redução da emissão de óxido nitroso (N2O) proveniente da urina dos animais. O uso de fertilizante nitrogenado levou a um aumento da emissão de N2O, porém, a produção de massa seca da forrageira também aumentou com a aplicação do fertilizante. O balanço entre produção de massa seca e emissão de N2O mostra que a aplicação de fertilizante nitrogenado pode contribuir significativamente com a redução da área de pasto, com redução total de até 40%. Também foi realizada a modelagem matemática dos dados obtidos, simulando a produção de carne sob manejo extensivo em diversos cenários (Capítulo 6). A emissão de CH4 diminui, enquanto a emissão de dióxido de carbon (CO2) e N2O aumentaram devido as práticas de intensificação simuladas. A simulação mostrou que a intensificação na produção de carne bovina resulta em menor emissão de GEE por kg de carne produzida. As reduções podem chegar de 2 a 57%, dependendo do cenário. A intensificação também contribui com a diminuição da área total e tempo do ciclo de produção. Estes resultados mostram que a intensificação é uma potencial prática de mitigação para a produção de carne

Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar os aspectos sintáticos e semânticos da intensificação de grau no Guarani Paraguaio, observando como ela ocorre nos diferentes domínios. Os intensificadores analisados aqui são ite, iterei, rasa e heta. Recuperamos análises que tratam das diferentes posições sintáticas para as expressões de grau e mostramos evidências que sugerem que ite ocupa a posição de núcleo de DegP, enquanto iterei e rasa ocupam posição de adjunto. A partir disso, procuramos estabelecer uma análise em que as posições sintáticas dos modificadores de grau correspondam aos seus tipos semânticos às operações de grau por eles introduzidas. Argumentamos que ite quantifica a variável de grau do adjetivo, enquanto iterei e rasa modificam a forma positiva do predicado já medido por pos. Por fim, apresentamos no último capítulo uma análise da intensificação de grau nos predicados verbais e nominais, associando as leituras escalares disponíveis nestes domínios a propriedades lexicais. Em especial, a atomização semântica será a chave para as dimensões escalares disponíveis nestes domínios. No entanto, não assumimos que esses domínios são lexicalmente graduáveis, por isso heta será responsável por introduzir a dimensão graduável destes predicados. / The main goal of this dissertation is to analyze the syntactic and semantic aspects of degree intensification in Paraguayan Guaraní, observing how it works on different domains. The degree intensifiers analyzed are ite, iterei, rasa, and heta. We compare different approaches that investigate the syntactic structure of degree expressions and show evidence that suggest that ite is a DegP head, while iterei and rasa are adjuncts. Considering this, we establish an analysis in which the syntactic positions of degree modifiers match their semantic types to the extent of the semantic operations they introduce. We argue that ite is responsible for saturating the degree variable of the adjective, while iterei and rasa modify the positive form of the adjective already measured by pos. Finally, in the last chapter we present an analysis of the intensification of nominal and verbal predicates, associating the available readings in those domains to lexical properties. In special, atomization will be the key to the scalar dimensions available in those domains. Nonetheless, we do not assume that the verbal and nominal domains are inherently gradable. That is precisely the reason why heta will be responsible for introducing a gradable dimension for these predicates.

As características inovadoras dos microreatores permitem a produção de novos materiais. O presente trabalho analisa o comportamento do milirreator ASIA da Syrris para a polimerização de estireno em solução. Realizaram-se polimerizações á 100 °C e 115 °C, usando peróxido de benzoíla como iniciador e tolueno como solvente. Testaram-se diferentes razões monômero solvente e diferentes quantidades de iniciador, além de variar o tempo de residência entre 5 e 80 minutos. As variações dos parâmetros envolvidos nesse milirreator proporcionou conversões de 9% até quase 70%, com pesos moleculares numéricos entre 6,000 e 50,000 g/mol. Não houve entupimento no reator, permitindo a aplicação de condições mais agressivas e melhor controladas. Fez-se uma primeira tentativa de modelagem, usando o modelo do PFR e, em seguida, da dispersão axial. Usou-se o método dos momentos para computar as médias da distribuição do peso molecular. As simulações forneceram uma razoável previsão da conversão e do peso molecular médio para os experimentos mais diluídos, mas se distanciaram para os casos com maior concentração de monômero e com maior polidispersão, sendo isso provavelmente resultado do desvio do comportamento de fluxo em pistão. Portanto, o milirreator ASIA é capaz de controlar bem as reações de polimerização, (proporcionando baixos valores do índice de polidispersão), além de fornecer valores satisfatórios de conversão (tendo em conta do seu pequeno tamanho). O sucesso no controle das polimerizações pode certamente permitir o scale-up de um reator com tais características, de forma a empregá-lo para produtividades maiores de polímeros com boa qualidade. / The innovative characteristics of microreactors allow producing new materials. The present work analyses the behavior of the Syrris ASIA millireactor for the solution polymerization of styrene. The polymerizations were carried out at 100 °C and 115 °C, using benzoyl peroxide as initiator and toluene as solvent. Different monomer to solvent ratios and initiator quantities have been tested, besides varying the residence time from 5 to 80 minutes. The variations of the parameters involved in this millireactor gave conversions from 9% to almost 70%, with numerical molecular weights ranging from 6,000 to 50,000 g/mol. No plugging happened, opening the possibility of more aggressive and well controlled applications. A first attempt of modeling was made, using the PFR model and the dispersion model. The method of moments was adopted to compute the means of the molecular weight distribution. The simulations gave a good prediction of conversion and average molecular weight for the more diluted experiments, but partially deviated for higher monomer contents with larger polydispersities, meaning a larger discrepancy from plug flow for the millireactor. In general, the millireactor ASIA can be concluded to control polymerization reactions well (giving low polydispersity index values), besides giving satisfactory conversion values (considering its small size). Succeeding in controlling polymerizations can provide a reactor with characteristics of being scaled up and employed in greater productivities, ensuring good polymer qualities.

Ce travail, en s'appuyant sur les théories des représentations sociales, et sur le cas des pâturages dans les Cerrados brésiliens, montre qu'il n'existe pas de définition objective de la dégradation des ressources naturelles : celle-ci ne prend de sens que par rapport aux fonctions attribuées aux ressources considérées, fonctions socialement définies et situées.<br />Ainsi la définition adoptée par le milieu de la recherche agronomique est marquée par les objectifs de colonisation agricole de la région, d'intensification et de modernisation de l'agriculture qu'il poursuit. Pour le milieu "socio-environnementaliste", elle est marquée par des objectifs de résistance au processus de colonisation de la région et de défense des intérêts des petits producteurs longtemps ignorés des politiques agricoles.<br />Concernant les producteurs, le sens qu'ils donnent à la dégradation des pâturages est lié à leur relation pratique à cette ressource. Dans un contexte de changement technique, on montre que les agriculteurs construisent de nouvelles représentations et que cette construction est nécessaire pour donner un sens aux innovations et au concept de dégradation introduits par les techniciens.<br />Résoudre les problèmes de dégradation nécessite d'admettre leur statut de construction sociale et le rôle que les agriculteurs doivent jouer dans la construction d'un concept commun de dégradation.

Les émulsions très concentrées sont présentes dans de nombreux domaines tels que l'agroalimentaire ; la cosmétique ; la pétrochimie etc. L'enjeu de cette étude de thèse est de caractériser un nouveau type de mélangeur basse énergie appelé mélangeur à deux barreaux (MDB) permettant d'obtenir en une seule étape une émulsion très concentrée d'huile (91%) visqueuse dans de l'eau. Ce travail a permis de définir les grandes étapes et la cinétique de formation de ce type d'émulsion au sein de ce mélangeur deux barreaux en cuve (MDB-Cuv.). Il a également été montré que ce mélangeur permet de contrôler la taille des gouttes et donc les propriétés de l'émulsion formée tout en étant très compétitif d'un point de vue énergétique. Enfin, ce procédé en cuve a pu être adapté en continu (MDB-Cont.) tout en conservant ses principales caractéristiques : production contrôlée d'émulsion uni-modale à faible coût énergétique et sans échauffement des fluides. Mots clefs : Emulsions concentrées, Emulsification basse énergie, Procédé, Rhéologie des émulsions concentrées, Contrôle et caractérisation de la taille des gouttes, Intensification.

Au cours des trois dernières décennies, les algorithmes heuristiques ont permis de réaliser des progrès remarquables dans la résolution des problèmes difficiles d'optimisation combinatoire. Cependant, la conception de ces algorithmes relève encore plusieurs challenges importants - en particulier, il semble qu'il est toujours difficile d'intégrer dans une heuristique une vue d'ensemble sur l'évolution de la recherche ou sur sa trajectoire. Prenant comme cadre expérimental le problème bien connu de la coloration de graphe, nous présentons de nouvelles stratégies qui font appel à certains mécanismes d'apprentissage pour rendre le processus de recherche plus "auto-conscient". Nous introduisons un algorithme qui est capable d'enregistrer sa trajectoire et d'interpréter sa propre évolution. Une analyse de l'espace de recherche a montré que les meilleures configurations visitées sont relativement proches les unes des autres, regroupées dans des sphères de rayon fixe. Avec ce type d'informations apprises, nous avons conçu : (i) des algorithmes de diversification qui "prennent garde" à ne pas visiter la même sphère à plusieurs reprises, (ii) des algorithmes d'intensification qui se focalisent sur l'exploration d'un périmètre limité en utilisant un parcours en largeur des sphères de ce périmètre, et (iii) des approches évolutionnistes pour gérer la diversité de sorte que les individus soient à la fois de bonne qualité eu égard à la fonction objectif et suffisamment distants les uns des autres. En fait, nous présentons une gamme de techniques (e.g. nouvelles fonctions d'évaluation) qui peuvent rendre la recherche heuristique "bien informée".

Canadian society is facing a marked demographic shift as the baby boom generation ages. By 2031 almost 25 percent of Canadians will be over sixty-five; many of those will be north of eighty and the oldest boomers will be turning eighty-five. One person in four will be a senior. The lack of acceptable intermediate solutions between independence and institutionalization has been pointed out as one of the significant problems facing elderly persons; traditional ‘institutional’ care which keeps older people apart and medicalizes old age, is no longer desirable. Likewise, the ‘golden ghettoes’ model may be appealing to those who can afford it but does not contribute to producing diverse, inclusive urban places. This thesis is an exploration of an alternative strategy. It investigates how architecture can provide a platform for social connection in a residential environment that allows in equal measure both independence without isolation, and informal community with safety and security. The design proposal establishes five architectural strategies which address the fundamental spatial implications of encouraging aging-in-place. This exploration is supplemented with a cohousing strategy, providing a formal organizational tactic that encourages groups of residents to mutually support each other, strengthening social inclusion and reducing the use of formal care and support only where absolutely necessary. The methodology employed examines the mutually dependent and interactive scales of City, Neighbourhood, Building, and Dwelling in conceiving of housing for an aging population that becomes a catalyst of urban integration and community regeneration.

Canadian society is facing a marked demographic shift as the baby boom generation ages. By 2031 almost 25 percent of Canadians will be over sixty-five; many of those will be north of eighty and the oldest boomers will be turning eighty-five. One person in four will be a senior. The lack of acceptable intermediate solutions between independence and institutionalization has been pointed out as one of the significant problems facing elderly persons; traditional ‘institutional’ care which keeps older people apart and medicalizes old age, is no longer desirable. Likewise, the ‘golden ghettoes’ model may be appealing to those who can afford it but does not contribute to producing diverse, inclusive urban places. This thesis is an exploration of an alternative strategy. It investigates how architecture can provide a platform for social connection in a residential environment that allows in equal measure both independence without isolation, and informal community with safety and security. The design proposal establishes five architectural strategies which address the fundamental spatial implications of encouraging aging-in-place. This exploration is supplemented with a cohousing strategy, providing a formal organizational tactic that encourages groups of residents to mutually support each other, strengthening social inclusion and reducing the use of formal care and support only where absolutely necessary. The methodology employed examines the mutually dependent and interactive scales of City, Neighbourhood, Building, and Dwelling in conceiving of housing for an aging population that becomes a catalyst of urban integration and community regeneration.

The present work aimed at designing a thermally efficient microreactor system coupling methanol steam reforming with methanol combustion for autothermal hydrogen production. A preliminary study was performed by analyzing three prototype reactor configurations to identify the optimal radial distribution pattern upon enhancing the reactor self-insulation. The annular heat integration pattern of Architecture C showed superior performance in providing efficient heat retention to the system with a 50 - 150 degrees C decrease in maximum external-surface temperature. Detailed work was performed using Architecture C configuration to optimize the catalyst placement in the microreactor network, and optimize reforming and combustion flows, using no third coolant line. The optimized combustion and reforming catalyst configuration prevented the hot-spot migration from the reactor midpoint and enabled stable reactor operation at all process flowrates studied. Best results were obtained at high reforming flowrates (1800 sccm) with an increase in combustion flowrate (300 sccm) with the net H2 yield of 53% and thermal efficiency of >80% from methanol with minimal insulation to the heatintegrated microchannel network. The use of the third bank of channels for recuperative heat exchange by four different reactor configurations was explored to further enhance the reactor performance; the maximum overall hydrogen yield was increased to 58% by preheating the reforming stream in the outer 16 heat retention channels. An initial 3-D COMSOL model of the 25-channeled heat-exchanger microreactor was developed to predict the reactor hotspot shape, location, optimum process flowrates and substrate thermal conductivity. This study indicated that low thermal conductivity materials (e.g. ceramics, glass) provides enhanced efficiencies than high conductivity materials (e.g. silicon, stainless steel), by maintaining substantial thermal gradients in the system through minimization of axial heat conduction. Final summary of the study included the determination of system energy density; a gravimetric energy density of 169.34 Wh/kg and a volumetric energy density of 506.02 Wh/l were achieved from brass architectures for 10 hrs operation, which is higher than the energy density of Li-Ion batteries (120 Wh/kg and 350 Wh/l). Overall, this research successfully established the optimal process flowrates and reactor design to enhance the potential of a thermally-efficient heat-exchanger microchannel network for autothermal hydrogen production in portable applications.

The Metro Vancouver region is experiencing high levels of population and employment growth within a strictly limited land base. With increasing competition for land, industrial land in particular is under considerable pressure to be converted to other uses, such as residential and commercial, with the current supply of industrial land is expected to be exhausted within 15 years. Without the ability to expand the industrial land base to meet the region’s future industrial needs, more efficient use of existing industrial lands must be achieved. In recognition of this, the region is investigating intensification policies to encourage better utilization and intensification of industrial lands for industrial activities. The early work on industrial land intensification highlighted a gap in planning literature and practice with respect to how the intensity of industrial land use is defined and measured. A better understanding of intensification in the industrial land context is required for the region to develop industrial land intensification policies. This research practicum explores expanded definitions and measures of intensification. The inquiry develops a prototype analytical tool designed to communicate these definitions and measures and to facilitate the evaluation of industrial land intensification. The prototype tool is based on sustainability assessment tools used in sustainable development planning. Through semi-structured interviews with industrial land stakeholders, expanded definitions and measures of industrial intensification were considered and the prototype tool was refined. The project concludes with a discussion of future directions for the prototype tool, including the development of multiple versions of the tool at different scales and for different industrial sectors; the creation of an intensification rating system; and the adaptation of the tool into a checklist to be integrated into municipal development application processes. These evolutions of the prototype tool anticipate how it could be integrated into planning and development practices and inform industrial land intensification policies in areas such as the Metro Vancouver region. / October 2015