nÃo hà / Um grave problema presente quando aplicamos semÃntica composicional, que atribui simples valores de verdade a frases, à que quando essas seqÃÃncias estÃo presentes em alguns contextos especÃficos, a substituiÃÃo de certas expressÃes com a mesma referÃncia pode cambiar o valor de verdade da frase maior ou entÃo impedir que inferÃncias vÃlidas sejam realizadas. Por exemplo, da afirmaÃÃo "Pedro acredita que Alexandre o Grande foi aluno de AristÃteles", nÃo se pode inferir corretamente neste contexto de crenÃa que a substituiÃÃo de "Alexandre o grande" por "o vencedor da batalha de Arbela" seja vÃlida porque eventualmente Pedro pode nÃo saber que "Alexandre o Grande à o vencedor da batalha de Arbela" e por isso a verdade das premissas nÃo garante a verdade da conclusÃo: "Pedro acredita que o vencedor da batalha de Arbela foi aluno de AristÃteles". A conclusÃo nÃo se segue pois ela nÃo depende da relaÃÃo de identidade efetiva entre âAlexandre o Grandeâ e âO vencedor da Arbelaâ, e sim depende, de maneira contingente, do conjunto de crenÃas de Pedro; ou ainda, segundo Frege, depende do sentido que Pedro associa a descriÃÃo âAlexandre o Grandeâ. Em contextos intensionais a verdade da conclusÃo (apÃs substituiÃÃo) depende de uma maneira especÃfica da maneira de conceber o nome em questÃo, por isso a substituiÃÃo entre nomes cujo referente à o mesmo, mas que diferem em sentido, nÃo funciona em todos os casos. O fato à que Frege nunca estabeleceu critÃrios de identidade para o sentido (Sinn), apenas reservou-se a declarar simplesmente que o sentido à o "modo de apresentaÃÃo" da referÃncia. Pretendemos apresentar critÃrios de identidade para o sentido em geral, e em contextos intensionais, em particular. Os sucessores de Frege, dentre eles o lÃgico Alonzo Church e o filÃsofo Rudolf Carnap foram os primeiros a estabelecer que duas expressÃes tÃm o mesmo sentido se e somente se sÃo sinonimamente isomorfas e intensionalmente isomorfas, respectivamente. Tais critÃrios devem ser entendidos à luz dos pressupostos lÃgicos de Church em sua LÃgica do Sentido e da DenotaÃÃo (LSD) e das idÃias de Carnap â muitas delas constituintes do programa filosÃfico do Positivismo lÃgico, em seu livro Meaning and Necessity. Mais recentemente, Pavel Tichà estabeleceu de maneira mais exata o que à o sentido e sua identidade atravÃs do Procedural isomorphism o qual constitui um dos fundamentos da LÃgica Intensional Transparente (TIL). / A feature of the distinction between extensionalism and intensionalism, which has been widely taken as a criterion to separate the two positions, is that within an extensionalist logic, substitution is possible salva veritate (that is, without thereby changing the truth-value of the statement concerned) with respect to identical instances of some basic logical form â and in an intensionalist logic it is not. The different logical forms with respect to which such substitution might take place accounts for some of the variety of different extensionalisms on offer in the current philosophical landscape. So our starting-point is Fregeâs puzzle. This question is frequently accepted as one of the foundations of modern semantics. To explain why a true sentence of the form âa = bâ can be informative, unlike a sentence of the form âa = aâ, Frege introduced an entity standing between an expression and the object denoted (bezeichnet) by the expression. He named this entity Sinn (sense) and explained the informative character of the true âa=bâ-shaped sentences by saying that âaâ and âbâ denote one and the same object but differ in expressing (ausdrÃcken) distinct senses. The problem, though, is that Frege never defined sense. The conception of senses as procedures that is developed here has much in common with a number of other accounts that represent meanings, also, as structured objects of various kinds, though not necessarily as procedures. In the modern literature, this idea goes back to Rudolph Carnapâs (1947) notion of intensional isomorphism. Church in (1954) constructs an example of expressions that are intensionally isomorphic according to Carnapâs definition (i.e., expressions that share the same structure and whose parts are necessarily equivalent), but which fail to satisfy the principle of substitutability. The problem Church tackled is made possible by Carnapâs principle of tolerance (which itself is plausible). We are free to introduce into a language syntactically simple expressions which denote the same intension in different ways and thus fail to be synonymous. TichÃâs objectualist take on âoperation-processesâ may be seen in part as linguistic structures transposed into an objectual key; operations, procedures, structures are not fundamentally and inherently syntactic items, but fully-fledged, non-linguistic entities, namely, constructions.

No description available.

We often want to explain and predict behavior, both our own and that of others. For various reasons we want to know not only why (in the sense of etiology) someone is doing what he is, but we also have interests in understanding the agent's reasons for which he is acting as he is. Though not uncontroversial, it is common to cite intentional states when offering such explanations. Most philosophers take certain intentional states to be the causes of our actions and to play a role in accounting for the reasons for which one acts. Additionally, most theorists who adopt such a line take the relevant intentional states to be propositional attitudes, most commonly beliefs and desires (or other pro attitudes which relate one to a proposition). In many of our explanations, we do indeed cite beliefs and desires, but we also cite many other psychological states that aren't obviously beliefs or desires. In fact, some of the relevant psychological states don't even appear to be propositional attitudes. In this paper I pursue two lines of questioning, one about the explanations of action and one about intentionality. First, what role is played by these apparently non-propositional attitudes? Such attitudes turn up in Davidson's locus classicus and can be found in the most recent work on action as well, but explications are sparse. Second, are these attitudes in fact non-propositional? Despite appearances to the contrary, one might argue that such states are to be, in some way or other, assimilated to the more familiar propositional attitudes. I resist this line in the second chapter. / text

ITPerl is a web authoring tool that enables users to add temporal features to intensional web pages. ITPerl adds temporal macros to IPerl, a Perl interface to the C++ intense library. ITPerl combines temporal and default logic with intensional programming. ITPerl is an ideal solution for many time-sensitive and rapidly changing web applications. When developing a site, a user can add a temporal section to a webpage by providing different versions of it and associating each version with a time constraint. When a webpage is requested by a browser, a time point will be sent, as part of the request, to the ITPerl module. This time point is by default the current server time, but can be any time specified by the viewer. ITPerl will then compare the time point with each time constraint. If the time point satisfies more than one time constraint, then ITPerl will choose the best-fit version of the section by finding the most refined constraint. A html page that contains this best-fit version of this section will then be generated and sent back to the browser. ITPerl is easy to use. It provides the user with high level macros that have a simple syntax and that generate temporal codes as cgi files. This frees the user from having to write the complex temporal code himself.

The purpose of this dissertation is to develop a new generative grammar, based on the principles of intensional logic. More specifically, the goal is to create a psychologically real grammar model for use in natural language processing. The new grammar consists of a set of context-free rewrite rules tagged with intensional versions. Most generative grammars, such as transformational grammar, lexical functional-grammar and head-driven phrase structure grammar, extend traditional context-free grammars with a mechanism for dealing with contextual information, such as subcategorization of words and agreement between different phrasal elements. In these grammars there is not enough separation between the utterances of a language and the context in which they are uttered. Their models of language seem to assume that context is in some way encapsulated in the words of the language instead of the other way around. In intensional logic, the truth of a statement is considered in the context in which it is uttered, unlike traditional predicate logic in which truth is assigned in a vacuum, regardless of when or where it may have been stated. To date, the application of the principles of intensionality to natural languages has been confined to semantic theory. We remedy this by applying the ideas of intensional logic to syntactic context, resulting in intensional context-free grammar. Our grammar takes full advantage of the simplicity and elegance of context-free grammars while accounting for information that is beyond the sentence itself, in a realistic way. Sentence derivation is entirely encapsulated in the context of its utterance. In fact, for any particular context, the entire language of the grammar is encapsulated in that context. This is evidenced by our proof that the language of an intensional grammar is a set of context-free languages, indexed by context. To further support our claims we design and implement a small fragment of English using the grammar. The English grammar is capable of generating both passive and active sentences that include a subject, verb and up to two optional objects. Furthermore, we have implemented a partial French to English translation system that uses a single language dimension to initiate a translation. This allows us to include multiple languages in one grammar, unlike other systems which must separate the grammars of each language. This result has led this author to believe that we have created a grammar that is a viable candidate for a true Universal Grammar, far exceeding our initial goals. / Graduate / 0984 / 0800 / 0290 / rlittle@uvic.ca

This thesis presents TransLucid, a low-level, purely declarative, intensional programming language. Built on a simple algebra and with just a small number of primitives, TransLucid programs define arbitrary dimensional infinite data structures, which are then queried to produce results. The formal foundations of TransLucid come from the work in intensional logic by Montague and Scott. The background chapters give a history of intensional logic and its predecessors in the Western world, as well as a history of intensional programming and Lucid, the first intensional programming language. The semantics of TransLucid are fully specified in the form of operational semantics. Three levels of semantics are given, in increasing order of efficiency, with the sequential warehouse semantics, the most efficient, being presented together with a proof that any expression will be evaluated by only examining relevant dimensions in the current context. The language is then extended in three important ways, by adding versioned identifiers, (declarative) side-effects and timestamped equations and demands. Adding versioned identifiers to TransLucid enriches the expressiveness of the language and allows the encoding of a variety of programming paradigms, ranging from manipulating large data-cubes to pattern-matching. Adding side-effects supports one of the main reasons for TransLucid: namely, to provide a target language, together with a methodology, for translating the main programming paradigms, thus creating a uniform end platform that can be the focus for optimisation and program verification. A translation of imperative programs into TransLucid is given. Timestamped equations and demands enable TransLucid to become a language for synchronous programming in real-time systems, as well as allowing runtime updates to a program's equations. The language TransLucid represents a decisive advance in declarative programming. It has applications in many fields of computer science and opens up exciting new avenues of research.

This thesis presents TransLucid, a low-level, purely declarative, intensional programming language. Built on a simple algebra and with just a small number of primitives, TransLucid programs define arbitrary dimensional infinite data structures, which are then queried to produce results. The formal foundations of TransLucid come from the work in intensional logic by Montague and Scott. The background chapters give a history of intensional logic and its predecessors in the Western world, as well as a history of intensional programming and Lucid, the first intensional programming language. The semantics of TransLucid are fully specified in the form of operational semantics. Three levels of semantics are given, in increasing order of efficiency, with the sequential warehouse semantics, the most efficient, being presented together with a proof that any expression will be evaluated by only examining relevant dimensions in the current context. The language is then extended in three important ways, by adding versioned identifiers, (declarative) side-effects and timestamped equations and demands. Adding versioned identifiers to TransLucid enriches the expressiveness of the language and allows the encoding of a variety of programming paradigms, ranging from manipulating large data-cubes to pattern-matching. Adding side-effects supports one of the main reasons for TransLucid: namely, to provide a target language, together with a methodology, for translating the main programming paradigms, thus creating a uniform end platform that can be the focus for optimisation and program verification. A translation of imperative programs into TransLucid is given. Timestamped equations and demands enable TransLucid to become a language for synchronous programming in real-time systems, as well as allowing runtime updates to a program's equations. The language TransLucid represents a decisive advance in declarative programming. It has applications in many fields of computer science and opens up exciting new avenues of research.

No description available.

Στόχος της παρούσας Διατριβής είναι να ερευνήσει τη διαμόρφωση των αντιλήψεων γύρω από τα απειροστά και τις σχετικές μ’ αυτά επ’ άπειρον διαδικασίες σε δύο κατευθύνσεις: 1. Την ιστορική εξέλιξη και ερμηνεία της έννοιας του απειροστού και 2. Την ανάλυση των σχετικών αντιλήψεων των φοιτητών-αυριανών καθηγητών των μαθηματικών. Στο πρώτο μέρος της διατριβής γίνεται ανάλυση και ερμηνεία των αντιλήψεων για τα απειροστά που εκφράστηκαν από την Αρχαία μέχρι τη σύγχρονη εποχή. Η μελέτη αυτή οδηγεί στην κατασκευή ενός ερμηνευτικού πλαισίου που διακρίνει τα ιστορικά ερμηνευτικά πρότυπα (μοντέλα) των απειροστών σε τρία αντιθετικά ζεύγη ως εξής: Ι. Εντασιακά-Εκτασιακά πρότυπα απειροστών. ΙΙ. Ομογενή-Μη ομογενή πρότυπα απειροστών. ΙΙΙ. Μηδενοδύναμα-μη μηδενοδύναμα πρότυπα απειροστών. Το παραπάνω πλαίσιο χρησιμοποιείται στο δεύτερο μέρος της διατριβής ως μεθοδολογικό εργαλείο για το σχεδιασμό διδακτικών πειραμάτων και την ανάλυση των εμπειρικών δεδομένων. Ειδικότερα, έγιναν τρία διδακτικά πειράματα με φοιτητές του Τμήματος των Μαθηματικών. Στο πρώτο πείραμα ερευνήθηκε η έννοια της ταχύτητας σύγκλισης ακολουθίας ως μια διαισθητική προσέγγιση στα απειροστά. Στο δεύτερο πείραμα, ερευνήθηκε η δυνατότητα προσέγγισης στα απειροστά μέσα από κλασσικά θέματα των διακριτών Μαθηματικών, όπως ο υπολογισμός του αθροίσματος των δυνάμεων φυσικών αριθμών. Στο τρίτο πείραμα έγινε διδασκαλία ενός συγκεκριμένου μοντέλου των υπερ-πραγματικών αριθμών και αναλύθηκαν τα αποτελέσματα. Τα κυριότερα συμπεράσματα της διατριβής είναι: 1. Η σημασία της κατασκευής μαθηματικών οντοτήτων που ικανοποιούν τα αξιώματα της Πραγματικής Ανάλυσης, 2. Η σημασία της διαισθητικής προσέγγισης και τα όριά της και 3. Η καταλληλότητα των προτεινόμενων μοντέλων και θεμάτων, ως διδακτικού υλικού. / The aim of this Ph.D thesis is the conceptions regarding infinitesimals and infinitesimal processes in two directions: 1. The historical evolution and interpretation of the concept of infinitesimal and 2. The analysis of the conception of the students–prospective teachers of Mathematics. The first part of the thesis contains a study and an analysis of infinitesimals that appeared in History from Antiquity to our era. This study leads to the construction of a framework of interpretation which distinguishes the interpretative models into three pairs of opposites: I. Homogenous-Nonhomogenous, models of infinitesimals II. Intensional-Extensional, models of infinitesimals III. Nilpotent-Non nilpotent, models of infinitesimals The above framework is applied in the second part of the thesis, as a methodological tool for the design of didactical experiments with students of Mathematics. The first experiment concerns a research study on the notion of the rate of convergence, as an intuitive approach to infinitesimals. The second experiment is referred to the emergence of infinitesimals through classical themes (issues) of discrete mathematics, such as the computation of sums of powers of integers. The third experiment concerns the teaching of a specific model of Hyper-Real numbers and the analysis of its empirical outcomes. The main conclusions of this thesis are: 1. The significance of the construction of mathematical entities, which satisfy the axioms of Real Analysis. 2. The significance of the intuitive approach, as well with a focus on its foreseen limitations. 3. The relevance of the proposed models and themes as potential didactical material.

La programmation distribuée est une tâche difficile. Elle a énormément gagné en importance avec le développement des réseaux qui supportent un nombre croissant exponentiellement d’applications. Les systèmes distribués fournissent des fonctionnalités assurées par les noeuds qui forment un réseau et échangent des données et services, éventuellement par le biais de messages. La provenance du service n’est souvent pas pertinente, alors que sa fiabilité est essentielle. Notre objectif est de fournir un nouveau modèle de communication qui permet de spécifier intentionnellement lequel service est demandé, et non les noeuds qui le fournissent. Cette spécification intentionnelle des échanges offre un potentiel pour faciliter la programmation distribuée, garantir la persistance des données dans les messages et la résilience des systèmes, qui constituent le sujet de cette thèse. Nous proposons donc un cadre qui supporte des messages avec destinations intentionnelles, qui sont évaluées uniquement à la volée au fur et à mesure du déplacement des messages. Nous introduisons un langage, Questlog, qui gère les destinations intentionnelles. Contrairement aux langages à base de règles existants pour les réseaux, comme Datalog, qui suivent le mode push, Questlog permet d’exprimer des stratégies complexes afin de récupérer de manière récursive des données distribuées en mode pull. Le langage fonctionne sur une machine virtuelle qui s’appuie sur un SGBD. Nous démontrons l’approche avec des exemples pris dans deux domaines: (i) les architectures orientées données, où une classe restreinte d’applications client-serveur sont distribuées de manière transparente sur les systèmes pair-à-pair basés sur une DHT, (ii) les réseaux de capteurs sans fil, où un protocole de groupement des noeuds en clusters virtuels est proposé pour agréger les données. Dans ce protocole, les chefs des clusters sont élus à l’aide des destinations intentionnelles. Nos simulations sur la plate-forme QuestMonitor montre que cette approche offre une simplicité, une modularité aux protocoles, ainsi qu’une fiabilité accrue. / Distributed programming is a challenging task. It has tremendously gained importance with the wide development of networks, which support an exponentially increasing number of applications. Distributed systems provide functionalities that are ensured by nodes which form a network and exchange data and services possibly through messages. The provenance of the service is often not relevant, while its reliability is essential. Our aim is to provide a new communication model which allows to specify intensionally what service is needed as opposed to which nodes provide it. The intensional specification of exchanges offers a potential to facilitate distributed programming, to provide persistence of data in messages and resilience of systems, that constitute the topic of this thesis. We propose a framework that supports messages with intensional destinations, which are evaluated only on the fly while the messages are traveling. We introduce a rule-based language, Questlog, to handle the intensional destinations. In contrast to existing network rule-based languages, which like Datalog follow the push mode, Questlog allows to express complex strategies to recursively retrieve distributed data in pull mode. The language runs over a virtual machine which relies on a DBMS. We demonstrate the approach with examples taken from two domains: (i) data-centric architectures, where a class of restricted client-server applications are seamlessly distributed over peer-to-peer systems based on a DHT, and (ii) wireless sensor networks, where a virtual clustering protocol is proposed to aggregate data, in which cluster heads are elected using intensional destinations. Our simulations on the QuestMonitor platform demonstrates that this approach offers simplicity and modularity to protocols, as well as an increased reliability.