L’altération du métabolisme postprandial des lipides et l’inflammation chronique associée apparaissent comme des éléments majeurs de la physiopathologie de l’obésité. L’implication de l’absorption intestinale d’endotoxines bactériennes du microbiote au cours de la digestion des lipides a été mise en évidence. Cependant la modulation de ces phénomènes par différentes quantités de lipides différemment structurés reste mal caractérisée, notamment chez les obèses. Nous avons mis en place un protocole clinique, en cross-over randomisé, visant à étudier chez des sujets normo-pondérés et obèses les conséquences de la digestion de matière grasse consommée, soit sous forme tartinée en différentes quantités (10 g ou 40 g), soit sous forme finement émulsionnée (40 g) sur le métabolisme postprandial des lipides et des endotoxines. Nous avons ainsi mis en évidence que l’augmentation plasmatique des chylomicrons, suite à une augmentation de la quantité de matière grasse ingérée, était plus précoce et plus importante chez les normo-pondérés que chez les sujets obèses, avec la sécrétion de plus gros chylomicrons suite à 40 g. Lorsque 40 g de matière grasse est émulsionnée, nous montrons qu’elle aboutit à un pic de triglycérides des chylomicrons plus précoce et plus élevé, reflétant une absorption facilitée des lipides, et de manière plus marquée chez l’obèse. Nous montrons aussi que cet état émulsionné aboutit à une β-oxydation plus élevée des lipides exogènes sur la journée, sans différence de perte fécale. Une endotoxémie postprandiale est également observée suite aux différents repas. L’accumulation postprandiale d’endotoxines, notamment présentes dans les chylomicrons, augmente avec la quantité de matière grasse tartinée en corrélation avec l’aire sous courbe des chylomicrons chez les obèses. En complément, l’absorption lipidique in vitro par des cellules Caco-2 était plus importante suite à l’incubation de milieux de lipolyse d’émulsions stabilisées par du caséinate que de la lécithine. Enfin, un test de digestion a été réalisé avant et après une chirurgie de by-pass gastrique pour identifier si une diminution drastique de l’absorption lipidique modifiait l’endotoxémie. Suite à l’opération, les patients sont davantage exposés aux endotoxines après la prise d’une émulsion au petit-déjeuner. En revanche, la LBP, protéine de transport des endotoxines proinflammatoire, diminue significativement à jeun et en postprandial suite à l’opération. L’ensemble de ces travaux démontrent qu’en plus des effets de la quantité de lipides ingérée sur la lipémie et l’absorption d’endotoxines associée, la structure de la matière grasse joue un rôle important dans la modulation du devenir métabolique des acides gras. La structuration des lipides alimentaires pourrait donc être spécifiquement adaptée afin d’optimiser le métabolisme lipidique postprandial, notamment chez des personnes obèses. / The alteration of postprandial lipid metabolism and associated chronic inflammation emerge as major elements in the obesity pathophysiology. The involvement of the intestinal absorption of endotoxin from microbiota during lipid digestion was recently highlighted. However, the modulation of these phenomena by different amounts of differently structured lipids remains poorly characterized, especially in obese people. We developed a cross-over randomized clinical study to explore in normal weight and obese subjects the consequences of fat digestion, consumed either spread on bread in different amounts (10 g or 40 g) or finely emulsified (40 g), on postprandial metabolism of lipids and endotoxins. We have demonstrated that the increase in plasma chylomicrons, after increase in the amount of fat ingested, was earlier and greater in normal-weight than in obese subjects, with the secretion of larger chylomicrons after consumption of 40 g of spread fat. When 40 g of fat is emulsified, we show that it leads to an earlier and higher peak of chylomicron triglycerides, reflecting facilitated absorption of fat, and more significantly in obese subjects. We also show that emulsified fat results in higher β-oxidation of exogenous lipids over the day, with no difference in fecal excretion. Postprandial endotoxemia was also observed in response to different meals. The postprandial accumulation of endotoxins, present in chylomicrons, increases with the amount of spread fat ingested and it is correlated with the area under the curve of chylomicrons in obese subjects. In addition, the in vitro lipid absorption by Caco-2 cells was greater following incubation with lipolysis media of emulsions stabilized by caseinate than lecithin. Finally, a digestion test was conducted before and after gastric bypass surgery to identify whether a drastic reduction in lipid absorption altered metabolic endotoxemia. After surgery, patients are more exposed to endotoxins in the morning after emulsion consumption at breakfast. However, LBP, a proinflammatory protein transporting endotoxins, significantly decreases after surgery. Altogether, these studies demonstrate that in addition to the metabolic effects of dietary fat intake on lipemia and associated endotoxemia, the fat structure also plays an important role in the modulation of further fatty acid handling. Structuring of dietary lipids could thus be specifically adapted to optimize postprandial lipid metabolism, especially in obese people.

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2008. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 102-128).

Protein therapeutics offer numerous advantages over small molecule drugs and are rapidly becoming one of the most prominent classes of therapeutics. Unfortunately, they are delivered almost exclusively by injection due to biological obstacles preventing high bioavailability via the oral route. In this work, numerous approaches to overcoming these barriers are explored. PH-Responsive poly(itaconic acid-co-N-vinylpyrrolidone) (P(IA-co-NVP)) hydrogels were synthesized, and the effects of monomer ratios, crosslinking density, microparticle size, protein size, and loading conditions were systematically evaluated using in vitro tests. P(IA-co-NVP) hydrogels demonstrated up to 69% greater equilibrium swelling at neutral conditions than previously-studied poly(methacrylic acid-co-N-vinylpyrrolidone) hydrogels and a 10-fold improvement in time-sensitive swelling experiments. Furthermore, P(IA-co-NVP) hydrogel microparticles demonstrated up to a 2.7-fold improvement in delivery of salmon calcitonin (sCT) compared to methacrylic acid-based systems, with a formulation comprised of a 1:2 ratio of itaconic acid to N-vinylpyrrolidone demonstrating the greatest delivery capability. Vast improvement in delivery capability was achieved using reduced ionic strength conditions during drug loading. Use of a 1.50 mM PBS buffer during loading yielded an 83-fold improvement in delivery of sCT compared to a standard 150 mM buffer. With this improvement, a daily dose of sCT could be provided using P(IA-co-NVP) microparticles in one standard-sized gel capsule. P(IA-co-NVP) was also tested with larger proteins urokinase and Rituxan. Crosslinking density provided a facile method for tuning hydrogels to accommodate a wide range of protein sizes. The effects of protein PEGylation were also explored. PEGylated sCT displayed lower release from P(IA-co-NVP) microparticles, but displayed increased apparent permeability across a Caco-2 monolayer by two orders of magnitude. Therefore, PEG-containing systems could yield high bioavailability of orally delivered proteins. Finally, a modified SELEX protocol for cellular selection of transcellular transport-initiating aptamers was developed and used to identify aptamer sequences showing enhanced intestinal perfusion. Over three selection cycles, the selected aptamer library showed significant increases in absorption, and from an initial library of 1.1 trillion sequences, 5-10 sequences were selected that demonstrated up to 10-fold amplification compared to the naïve library. These sequences could provide a means of overcoming the significant final barrier of intestinal absorption. / text

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2008. / Title from PDF of title page. Document formatted into pages; contains 132 pages. Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references.

The thesis reports on 6 studies (2 of which were part of a multi-centre trial) examining hydration and fluid balance. The first study described in this thesis investigated the impact of hydration status on Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and other methods that are popular tools to determine body composition in athletes. We observed that it is important to ensure a euhydration when assessing body composition, particularly when considering changes associated with nutritional or exercise interventions. The second and third studies reported identified beverages that promote longer term fluid retention and maintenance of fluid balance in adults. We investigated the effects of 13 different commonly consumed drinks on urine output and fluid balance when ingested in a euhydrated state, with a view to establishing a beverage hydration index (BHI), i.e., the volume of urine produced after drinking expressed relative to a standard treatment (still water) for each beverage. The beverages with the highest BHI were oral rehydration solution, full fat milk and skimmed milk. BHI may be a useful measure to identify the short term hydration potential of different beverages when ingested in a euhydrated state. The fourth study aimed to systematically examine the influence of carbohydrate, sodium and caffeine content of beverages on the BHI. The BHI was greater in beverages with higher carbohydrate or higher sodium content, but not influenced by caffeine. The carbohydrate content of beverages has no effect on BHI at concentration up to 10% carbohydrate. Sodium content of beverages in concentrations of 27mmol/L and higher can improve the hydration potential of beverages. Caffeine doses in beverages up to 400mg/L do not have an impact upon diuresis when ingested in a euhydrated state. The fifth study compared net fluid balance (NFB) responses to the ingestion of commonly consumed drinks in young and older men. We observed that in young adults milk helps to maintain positive net fluid balance for longer than other drinks. In older adults this effect of milk is not observed despite similar net electrolyte balance responses. Future work should more fully explore these potential differences in fluid balance responses to drink ingestion between young and older adults. The final study investigated the hydration habits of Scottish young and older adults (+50 years old), identifying their fluid choices, volume, and preferences in relation to time of day. The results showed that 26.1% of the young females, 30.3% of the young males, 25.8% of the older females and 50.4% of the older males did not meet the European (EU) Food Safety Authority (EFSA) fluid intake recommendations. We also observed that the difference between those who met and those who did not meet the EFSA adequate intake could be attributed to differences in water ingestion, mainly during the mid-morning (after breakfast until 11 am) and during the early-afternoon (after lunch time up to 5 pm). It was concluded that these moments might be key when implementing interventions to improve hydration status especially in the older population.

O fósforo é um dos minerais mais abundantes no corpo além de ser essencial para muitos processos biológicos. A homeostase do fósforo depende da absorção no intestino, da excreção renal, da remodelação óssea e de hormônios como o paratormônio, calcitriol e FGF-23. Nos pacientes com doença renal crônica, a excreção urinária de fósforo está comprometida levando à hiperfosfatemia, que contribui para o aumento da morbidade e mortalidade desses pacientes. A absorção intestinal de fósforo no intestino delgado, particularmente via cotransportadores NaP-IIb e PiT-1, é pouco estudada. O objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar os efeitos de dietas com diferentes concentrações de fósforo na expressão proteica e gênica dos cotransportadores NaP-IIb e PiT-1, bem como na apoptose dos enterócitos dos diferentes segmentos do intestino delgado de animais controles e urêmicos. Estudamos setenta e seis ratos Wistar machos, inicialmente divididos em dois grupos: controles (C) e urêmicos (Nx). Cada grupo foi subdividido em outros três, de acordo com a concentração de fósforo (P) na dieta: dieta Baixa (0,2%), dieta Padrão (0,54%) e dieta Alta (0,9%). Analisamos parâmetros bioquímicos (creatinina, P, Cai, PTH e FGF-23), a expressão proteica dos cotransportadores, através de Western Blotting, ELISA e imunofluorescência, a expressão gênica por PCR em tempo real e a apoptose dos enterócitos pela técnica TUNEL. Os resultados mostraram que os níveis séricos de creatinina, P, PTH e FGF-23 foram significativamente mais elevados nos animais Nx. Nos animais C com dieta baixa em P observamos aumento da expressão proteica do cotransportador NaP-IIb em todos os segmentos do intestino enquanto, no Nx Baixo, a expressão desse cotransportador foi menor somente no jejuno. Quanto ao PiT-1, sua expressão foi menor no íleo do grupo Nx Alto comparado ao seu respectivo controle. A expressão gênica do cotransportador NaP-IIb foi menor no jejuno do Nx Alto e maior no íleo desse mesmo grupo em relação aos seus respectivos controles. A expressão gênica do PiT-1 foi maior em todos os segmentos do grupo Nx Baixo em relação aos seus controles. Detectamos uma correlação direta entre a expressão gênica do NaP-IIb no jejuno com o fósforo sérico. A expressão gênica do PiT-1 no jejuno correlacionou-se com o fósforo sérico e no duodeno e jejuno, com os níveis séricos de FGF-23. No duodeno e no jejuno, a porcentagem de enterócitos apoptóticos foi maior nos animais Nx Alto comparados aos controles, particularmente no duodeno a porcentagem dessas células também foi maior no grupo Nx Baixo e controle padrão. Já no jejuno, tanto o grupo Nx baixo quanto no Nx Padrão observamos menos células apoptóticas que nos seus respectivos controles. Quando analisamos conjuntamente todos os segmentos intestinais o grupo Nx alto apresentou mais células apoptóticas que o controle e o oposto foi observado nos grupos Nx Baixo e Nx Padrão. Em conclusão, dietas com distintas concentrações de fósforo promovem modificações na expressão proteica e gênica dos cotransportadores NaP-IIb e PiT-1 no intestino delgado que não seguem um padrão uniforme. A sobrecarga de fósforo aumenta a porcentagem de enterócitos apoptóticos nos animais urêmicos / Phosphorus is one of the most abundant minerals in the body besides being essential for many biological processes. Phosphorus homeostasis depends on absorption in the small intestine, renal excretion, bone remodeling and hormones such as parathyroid hormone, calcitriol and FGF-23. In patients with chronic kidney disease phosphorus urinary excretion is compromised leading to hyperphosphatemia, which contributes to increased morbidity and mortality of these patients. Intestinal absorption of phosphorus in the small intestine, particularly of NaP-IIb and PiT-1 cotransporters is poorly studied. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of diets with different concentrations of phosphorus in protein expression and gene of NaP-IIb and PiT-1 cotransporters as well as in apoptosis of enterocytes of different segments of intestine in control and uremic animals. We studied seventy-six male Wistar rats initially divided into two groups: controls (C) and uremic (Nx). Each group was subdivided into three others, according to the phosphorus concentration in the diet: Low diet (0.2% P), Standard diet (0.54% P) and High diet (0.9% P). We analyzed biochemical parameters (creatinine, P, iCa, PTH and FGF-23), protein expression of cotransporters, using Western Blot, ELISA, immunofluorescence, real-time PCR and apoptosis of enterocytes using the TUNEL technique. Results showed that serum creatinine, P, PTH and FGF-23 were significantly higher in Nx animals. In C animals with a diet low in P we observed increase in protein expression of NaP-IIb cotransporter in all segments of the intestine while in low Nx expression of this cotransporter was lower only in jejunum. As for PiT-1 expression was lower in the ileum of the high Nx group compared to their respective control. Gene expression of NaP-IIb cotransporter was lower in the jejunum of high Nx and higher in the ileum of the same group as compared to their respective controls. PiT-1 gene expression was higher in all segments of the low Nx group compared to their controls. We detected a direct correlation between the gene expression of NaP-IIb in jejunum and serum phosphorus. Gene expression of PiT-1 correlated with serum phosphorus in the jejunum, and correlated with the serum levels of FGF-23 in the jejunum and duodenum. In the duodenum and jejunum the percentage of apoptotic enterocytes was higher in high Nx animals compared to controls; particularly in the duodenum the percentage of these cells was also higher in low Nx group and standard control. In the jejunum in both low Nx group and standard Nx we observed fewer apoptotic cells than in their respective controls. When we analyze all intestinal segments together the high Nx group had more apoptotic cells than the control, and the opposite was observed in the low Nx group and standard Nx group. In conclusion, diets with different phosphorus concentrations promote changes in protein expression and gene of NaP-IIb and PiT-1 cotransporters in the small intestine that do not follow a uniform pattern. Phosphorus overhead increases the percentage of apoptotic enterocytes in uremic animals

<p>Supersaturating drug delivery systems are an attractive solubility enabling formulation strategy for poorly soluble drugs due to their potential to significantly enhance solubility and hence, bioavailability. Compendial dissolution testing is commonly used a surrogate for assessing the bioavailability of enabling formulations. However, it increasingly fails to accurately predict <i>in vivo</i> performance due its closed-compartment characteristics and the lack of absorptive sink conditions. <i>In vivo</i>, drug is continually removed due to absorption across the gastrointestinal membrane, which impacts the luminal concentration profile, which in turn affects the dissolution kinetics of any undissolved material, as well as crystallization kinetics from supersaturated solutions. Thus, it is critical to develop an improved methodology that better mimics <i>in vivo</i> conditions. An enhanced approach integrates dissolution and absorption measurements. However, currently-used two-compartment absorptive apparatuses, employing a flat-sheet membrane are limited, in particular by the small membrane surface area that restricts the mass transfer, resulting in unrealistic experimental timeframes. This greatly impacts the suitability of such systems as a formulation development tool. The goal of this research is two-fold. First, to develop and test a high surface area, flow-through, absorptive dissolution testing apparatus, designed to provide <i>in vivo</i> relevant information about formulation performance in biologically relevant time frames. Second, to use this apparatus to obtain mechanistic insight into physical phenomenon occurring during formulation dissolution. Herein, the design and construction of a coupled dissolution-absorption apparatus using a hollow fiber membrane module to simulate the absorption process is described. The hollow fiber membrane offers a large membrane surface area, improving the mass transfer rates significantly. Following the development of a robust apparatus, its application as a formulation development tool was evaluated in subsequent studies. The dissolution-absorption studies were carried out for supersaturated solutions generated via anti-solvent addition, pH-shift and by dissolution of amorphous formulations. The research demonstrates the potential of the apparatus to capture subtle differences between formulations, providing insight into the role of physical processes such as supersaturation, crystallization kinetics and liquid-liquid phase separation on the absorption kinetics. The study also explores dissolution-absorption performance of amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) and the influence of resultant solution phase behavior on the absorption profile. Residual crystalline content in ASDs is a great concern from a physical stability and dissolution performance perspective as it can promote secondary nucleation or seed crystal growth. Therefore, the risk of drug crystallization during dissolution of ASDs containing some residual crystals was assessed using absorptive dissolution measurements and compared to outcomes observed using closed-compartment dissolution testing. Mesoporous silica-based formulations are another type of amorphous formulations that are gaining increased interest due to higher physical stability and rapid release of the amorphous drug. However, their application may be limited by incomplete drug release resulting from the adsorption tendency of the drug onto the silica surface. Thus, the performance of mesoporous silica-based formulations was also evaluated in the absorptive dissolution testing apparatus to determine the impact of physiological conditions such as gastrointestinal pH and simultaneous membrane absorption on the adsorption kinetics during formulation dissolution. Overall, the aim of this research was to demonstrate the potential of the novel <i>in vitro</i> methodology and highlight the significance of a dynamic absorptive dissolution environment to enable better assessment of complex enabling formulations. <i>In vivo</i>, there are multiple physical processes occurring in the gastrointestinal lumen and the kinetics of these processes strongly depend on the absorption kinetics and <i>vice-a-versa</i>. Thus, using this novel tool, the interplay between solution phase behavior and the likely impacts on bioavailability of supersaturating drug delivery systems can be better elucidated. This approach and apparatus is anticipated to be of great utility to the pharmaceutical industry to make informed decisions with respect to formulation optimization.</p>

Bluthochdruck ist ein globales Gesundheitsproblem, das Milliarden von Menschen weltweit betrifft und schwerwiegende physische, finanzielle und auch produktivitätsbezogene Auswirkungen hat (Forum and Health, 2011; WHO, 2013; Williams et al., 2018). Die Aufnahme bioaktiver Peptide mit blutdrucksenkender Wirkung wie das Isoleucin-Tryptophan (IW) ist als mögliche Präventionsstrategie für die Hypertonie in Diskussion. Das Dipetid IW hemmt das Angiotensin-Converting-Enzym (ACE) und zeigt im Tierversuch eine blutdrucksenkende Wirkung (Martin et al., 2008b; Kaiser et al., 2016). Die Absorption dieses Dipeptids ist jedoch noch nicht aufgeklärt. Daher sollte in der vorliegenden Arbeit die Absorption und Stabilität bioaktiver Peptide am Beispiel des Dipeptids IW untersucht werden. Die folgenden 3 Zielsetzungen sollten dabei helfen die Aufnahme von IW in vivo aufzuklären. 1) Untersuchung der intestinalen Absorption von IW ex-vivo mittels Darmperfusion (EIPM). 2) Bewertung der intestinalen Stabilität von IW mittels Darm/Peptid-Co-Inkubation und anschließenden Studien zur Identifikation IW-abbauender Enzyme. 3) Untersuchung auf mögliche weiter gastrointestinale Absorptionsrouten von IW beim Menschen. Im ersten Schritt wurde die ex-vivo Darmperfusions-Methode (EIPM) etabliert, so dass eine physiologische Abschätzung der Absorption von IW durch den Mausdarm möglich wird. Mit dieser Methode wurden die absorptiven Funktionen des Darms ex-vivo zunächst mit den Kontrollsubstanzen, Koffein und Erythrozyten geprüft, bevor die Absorption der Dipeptide IW und WL untersucht wurden. Die Ergebnisse aus den Dipeptid Studien zeigten, dass IW und WL nicht intakt aus dem Mausdarm absorbiert wurden, allerdings die in der Sequenz der Dipeptide enthaltene Aminosäure Tryptophan konnte nachgewiesen werden. Dies lässt darauf schließen, dass die Dipeptide durch die Darmenzyme mit anschließender Freisetzung von Tryptophan rasch abgebaut wurden. Die Berechnung der Massenbilanz zeigten für IW und WL ein signifikantes Massendefizit (18 % für IW und 15 % für WL). Die Darm/Peptid-Co-Inkubationsstudien zeigten ebenfalls eine rasche Abnahme (innerhalb von 5 Minuten) der IW- und WL-Konzentrationen und gleichzeitig eine Zunahme der Tryptophankonzentration. Damit konnte bestätigt werden, dass IW und WL im Darm rasch abgebaut wird. Auch in den Co-Inkubationsstudien gab es wie bei den EIPM-Ergebnissen ein signifikantes Massendefizit (19 % für IW und 21 % für WL). Für die Identifizierung der IW abbauenden Enyzme wurden die Darm-Peptid-Co-Inkubation zusätzlich neben IW mit verschiedenen allgemeinen und spezifischen Inhibitoren durchgeführt. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass Membrandipeptidase, Aminopeptidase W und Aminopeptidase N die Enzyme sind, die hauptsächlich IW im Darm abbauen. Die gleichzeitige Hemmung dieser Enzyme verhinderte signifikant die Hydrolyse von IW im Darm. So wurden 64,1 % des eingesetzten IW nach 5 min quantifiziert. Für Aminopeptidase N und die Membrandipeptidase sind kommerziell erhältliche Antikörper vorhanden, so dass die beiden mittels Western Blot und Immunchemie als Bürstenrandenzyme im Darmepithel nachgewiesen wurden. In einer weiteren Versuchsreihe wurde untersucht, ob die oben genannten Enzyme auch für den Abbau von IW im Plasma verantwortlich sind. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass diese identifizierten Enzyme den Abbau von IW im Plasma nicht verhinderten, was zeigt, dass dort andere Enzymgruppen beteiligt sind. Weiter wurden Veränderungen der intestinalen ACE-Aktivität und des intestinalen ACE-Proteinspiegels nach der Inkubation mit IW untersucht. Es zeigten sich durch die Inkubation mit IW eine Verringerung der ACE-Aktivität, die allerdings auf Grund der hohen Standardabweichung keine Signifikanz erreichte. Der ACE-Proteinspiegel zeigte durch die Inkubation mit IW keine signifikanten Veränderungen. Im Hinblick auf die Humanstudien wurde die IW Stabilität in Speichelproben von 4 Freiwilligen untersucht. Während bei einer Probe keinerlei Abbau von IW über 10 min gesehen wurde, zeigten die anderen 3 dagegen einen deutlichen Abbau von IW. Nach 10 min Inkubation waren im Mittel noch 81,7 % IW intakt nach 30 min nur noch 68,6 %. Parallel zum IW – Abbau nahm die Tryptophan-Konzentration zu. Mit der erhaltenen Massenbilanz von 108,2 % konnte eindeutig ein Abbau von IW bestätig werden. Um die mögliche Absorption von IW über den gesamten Magen-Darm-Trakts beim Menschen zu beurteilen, wurde IW über verschiedene Wege verabreicht: sublingual, in Trinkwasser gelöst, als magensaftresistente Kapseln und als nicht magensaftresistente Kapseln. Die Ergebnisse der Absorptionsstudien mit 5 bis 6 Probanden zeigten einen Anstieg von IW im Plasma im Vergleich zu den basalen Werten bei den folgenden Interventionen: als magensaftresistente Kapseln (Mittelwert; +/-304 %, Median; +/-156 %), sublingual (Mittelwert; +/-303 %, Median; +/-204 %), in Trinkwasser gelöst (Mittelwert; +/-266 %, Median; +/-287 %) und schließlich als Kapseln ohne Magensaftresistenz (Mittelwert; +/-163 %, Median; +/-152 %). Alle Messparameter unterlagen hohen interindividuellen Schwankungen. Die Fläche unter den Kurven für den IW-Anstieg wurde in folgender Reihenfolge kalkuliert: IW magensaftresistente Kapseln > sublinguale IW > IW in Trinkwasser gelöst > IW Kapseln ohne Magensaftresistenz. Dies gilt sowohl für den Vergleich des Mittelwerts als auch für den des Median. Eine entsprechende Hemmung der Plasma-ACE-Aktivität wurde auch bei den Teilnehmern nach der IW-Einnahme beobachtet. IW, das über dem sublingualen Weg verabreicht wurde, bewirkte die stärkste Hemmung der Plasma-ACE-Aktivität (Mittelwert; +/-19,1 %, Median; +/-17. 9 %), gefolgt von in Trinkwasser gelösten IW (Mittelwert;+/-16,8 %, Median; +/-18,6 %), dann IW-magensaftresistente Kapseln (Mittelwert; +/-13,6 %, Median; +/-15,1 %) und schließlich IW- Kapseln ohne Magensaftresistenz (Mittelwert; -9,3 %, Median; -9,2 %). Zusammenfassend haben die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Studie gezeigt, dass IW im Darm rasch abgebaut wird, was für seine Bioverfügbarkeit eine Rolle spielt. Als die wichtigsten Enzyme, die IW im Darm abbauen, wurden die Membrandipeptidase, Aminopeptidase N und Aminopeptidase W identifiziert, diese sind allerdings nicht für den IW-Abbau im Plasma verantwortlich. Schließlich zeigten die Ergebnisse der Humanstudien, dass IW vor allem sublingual und intestinal, in geringerem Masse auch über den Magen absorbiert wurde. Parallel zu der Absorption wurde das Plasma-ACE gehemmt. Diese Studien liefern damit wichtige Grundlagen für die Absorption bioaktiver Peptide, welche für die Überlegungen der Applikationsart dieser Peptide hilfreich sind.