The development of gallium nitride (GaN) light emitting devices has reached extraordinary echelons. As such, the characterization and analysis of the behavior of GaN materials is essential to the advancement of GaN technology. In this thesis, the effect of temperature on the optical and electrical properties of p-type GaN is investigated. The GaN samples used in this work were grown by various methods and studied by Kelvin probe and photoluminescence (PL) techniques. Specifically, the surface photovoltage (SPV) behavior and PL data were analyzed at different temperatures and illumination intensities. Using the SPV results, we show that p-type GaN exhibits n-type conductivity at low temperatures (80 K). If the sample is heated beyond a characteristic temperature, TC, the conductivity reverts to p-type. This temperature of conversion can be tuned by varying the illumination intensity. We explain this conductivity conversion using a simple, one-acceptor phenomenological model. Temperature-dependent PL measurements taken on Mg-doped p-type GaN layers show abrupt and tunable thermal quenching of the PL intensity. This effect is explained by a more complex model but with the same assertions, that the system must undergo a change in conductivity at low temperatures and under UV illumination. It is necessary to understand the observed behaviors, since the implications of such could have an effect on the performance of devices containing p-type GaN materials.

There is an understanding of surface photovoltage (SPV) behavior for GaN, yet little is known about the SPV behavior for AlGaN. In this work, a Kelvin probe was used to measure the SPV for p-type AlGaN. Very slow SPV transients were found in AlGaN, which could not be explained with a simple thermionic model. A possible explanation of this behavior is the segregation of impurities to the surface, which causes significant reduction of the depletion region width (down to 2 nm), with carrier tunneling and hopping becoming the dominant mechanisms responsible for the SPV transients. To verify this assumption, the near-surface defective region (about 40 nm) has been removed through the ICP-RIE process. After the etching, the SPV transients became fast and increased in magnitude by about 0.6 eV. By using the thermionic model, band bending was estimated to be -1 eV.

Steady-state and transient surface photovoltages in undoped GaN are studied in various environments (air, nitrogen, oxygen, vacuum) at room temperature and 400 K with a Kelvin probe attached to an optical cryostat. The results are explained within a phenomenological model accounting for the accumulation of photo-generated holes at the surface, capture of free electrons from the bulk over the near-surface potential barrier, and emission of electrons from surface states into the bulk. Mechanisms of surface photovoltage are discussed in detail. Photoadsorption and photodesorption of negatively charged species will either increase or decrease the surface potential and thus band bending. Oxygen is the assumed species responsible for the SPV changes in air ambient during continuous UV illumination. This variation in SPV will be confirmed with photoluminescence measurements.

In this work Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy (SKPM) was used to characterize surface states and device surface charging in nitride materials. Samples grown by Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE), Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) and Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy (HVPE) typically show a high surface band bending of about 1 eV. In an n-type sample with 3X1017 cm-3 carrier concentration, 1 eV upward band bending corresponds to 1.7X1012 cm-2 trapped charge density in the surface states. Under continuous ultraviolet (UV) illumination up to 0.6 eV surface photo voltage effect could be observed in some samples, which further indicates that surface band bending is very likely larger than 0.6 eV, i.e. close to 1 eV. Reactive Ion Etching (RIE)damage was observed to increase surface band bending by about 0.4 eV where as surface treatments in organic solvents and inorganic acids did not affect surface band bending significantly. These results indicate presence of high density of surface states in devices fabricated in nitride materials. Surface potential measurements immediately after turning off a reverse bias to the Schottky contact of a GaN Schottky diode as well as an AlGaN/GaN Hetero-junction Field Effect Transistor (HFET) show an increase of band bending near the Schottky contact edge. For an applied reverse bias of 4 V, about 0.5 eV increase of band bending was observed. This increase of band bending was caused by tunneling of electrons from the Schottky contact and their subsequent capture by surface states near the contact edge. In case of the HFET, the increase of band bending for a bias that caused no current flow through the device was similar to a bias that did. This showed that hot electron injection from the channel did not play a significant role in increasing surface band bending. The accumulated charge near the gate edge of a HFET can deplete the channel, which would cause the drain current to decrease. The total times of accumulation and dissipation of excess surface charge near the gate edge of the HFET were comparable to the time scales of drain current transients of current collapse and recovery. From this observation we attributed current collapse phenomena to charge accumulation near the edge of the reverse biased gate contact of a HFET.

Magnetic fluid flow by thermomagnetic convection with and without buoyancy was studied in experiments and computational simulations. A mineral oil based ferro magnetic fluid was subjected to varying magnetic fields to induce thermomagnetic convection. As such fluids are mainly developed to increase heat transfer for cooling the fundamental effects on magnetic fluid flow was investigated using various magnetic field distributions. Computational simulations of natural and thermomagnetic convection are based on a Finite-Element technique and considered a constant magnetic field gradient, a realistic magnetic field generated by a permanent magnet and alternating magnetic fields. The magnetic field within the fluid domain was calculated by the magneto-static Maxwell equations and considered in an additional magnetic body force known as the Kelvin body force by numerical simulations. The computational model coupled the solutions of the magnetic field equations with the heat and fluid flow equations. Experiments to investigate thermomagnetic convection in the presence of terrestrial gravity used infrared thermography to record temperature fields that are validated by a corresponding numerical analysis. All configurations were chosen to investigate the response of the magnetic fluid to the applied body forces and their competition by varying the magnetic field intensity and its spatial distribution. As both body forces are temperature dependent, situations were analysed numerically and experimentally to give an indication of the degree by which heat transfer may be enhanced or reduced. Results demonstrate that the Kelvin body force can be much stronger than buoyancy and can induce convection where buoyancy is not able to. This was evident in a transition area if parts of a fluid domain are not fully magnetically saturated. Results for the transition from natural convection to thermomagnetic convection suggest that the domain of influence of the Kelvin body force is aligned with the dominance of the respective body force. To characterise the transition a body force ratio of the Kelvin body force to buoyancy was developed that identified the respective driving forces of the convection cells. The effects on heat transfer was quantified by the Nusselt number and a suitable Rayleigh number. A modified Rayleigh number was used when both body forces were active to define an effective body force by taking the relative orientation of both forces into account. Results for the alternating magnetic field presented flow fields that altered with the frequency of the applied magnetic field but with varying amplitude. This affected the heat transfer that alternated with the frequency but failed to respond instantaneously and a phase lag was observed which was characterised by three different time scales.

Les technologies photovoltaïques représentent un grand espoir dans le domaine de l’énergie. Nous en sommes actuellement à la troisième génération de cellules solaires, composées de dispositifs nano structurés. A ces échelles, les performances mesurées par des techniques usuelles sont globales. Pour accéder aux grandeurs physiques locales, des outils de caractérisation avancés sont nécessaires. L’objectif de cette thèse est la mesure de travail de sortie et de temps de vie de porteurs par microscopie à force atomique et spectroscopie électronique. Après un rappel historique sur les technologies permettant de récolter l’énergie lumineuse, puis une explication détaillée du principe de fonctionnement des techniques de caractérisation employées, nous présenterons trois études :1) Une mesure de travail de sortie sur hétérostructures de silicium-germanium par XPEEM et KFM, pour démontrer la complémentarité des deux techniques. Nous verrons qu’elles sont capables d’imager des variations de travaux de sorties de l’ordre de 10 meV, et qu’elles ont permis de révéler un effet d’inversion de contraste dû à un état de surface. 2) Une mesure de travail de sortie par KFM sur matériaux III-V. Nous verrons que la résolution spatiale maximale est dépendante d’un effet de recouvrement de courbure de bandes, mis en évidence grâce à une simulation auto-cohérente du potentiel de surface. 3) Une technique permettant de reconstruire une cartographie de temps de vie de porteurs, grâce à l’acquisition de plusieurs images KFM sous illumination modulée en fonction de la fréquence. Cette technique a été appliquée avec succès sur une cellule solaire organique de type PBTFB-PCBM. / Photovoltaic technologies represent a great hope for actual energetic issues. We are now working with the third generation of solar cells, composed of nano structured devices. At these levels, the performances measured by conventional techniques are averaged. In order to access local physical quantities, advanced characterization technics have to be developed. The goal of this thesis is the local measurement of work function and carrier lifetime by atomic force microscopy and electron spectroscopy. After a historical overview on photovoltaic technologies and a detailed explanation of the operating principle of the characterization techniques, we present three studies:1) A work function measurement on silicon-germanium heterostructures by XPEEM and KFM, to demonstrate the complementarity of these techniques. We saw that both are able of imaging small (10 meV) work function variations, and have revealed a contrast inversion effect due to a surface state.2) A work function measurement by KFM on III-V materials. We saw that the maximum spatial resolution is dependent on a bend bending covering effect, highlighted with a self-consistent simulation of the surface potential.3) A technique giving access to carrier lifetime mappings, through the acquisition of several KFM images as a function of frequency modulated illumination. This technique has been successfully applied to an PBTFB-PCBM organic solar cell.

La compréhension des propriétés électroniques, électriques et mécaniques de nanostructures est une question clé en nanosciences et nanotechnologies. Pour sonder et comprendre ces propriétés à l’échelle nanométrique, une technique expérimentale essentielle est la microscopie champ proche. L’objectif de cette thèse a été de comprendre les propriétés électroniques et électromécaniques de nanostructures colloïdales individuelles ou assemblées par microscopie à force atomique en environnement ultra vide.La première partie du travail concerne les propriétés de transport à travers des assemblées de nanoparticules colloïdales métalliques d’or et transparentes d’oxyde d’indium (ITO) formant les zones actives de jauges de contraintes résistives. L’étude par conducting AFM a permis de mesurer les spectroscopies courant-tension I(V) en fonction de la force d’appui du levier et de la température. Le transport tunnel a été étudié du régime linéaire au régime Fowler Nordheim, permettant une mesure du module de Young effectif des ligands des nanoparticules.La deuxième partie du travail correspond en premier lieu la caractérisation des nanocristaux semiconducteurs colloïdaux individuels d’Arséniure d’Indium (InAs) dopés ou non-intentionnellement dopés, de tailles inférieures dans la gamme 2-8 nm. Cette étude visait à comprendre les processus de transfert de charges entre les nanocristaux et leur environnement dans un régime physique de fort confinement quantique et coulombien. Les résultats expérimentaux ont fourni une estimation du taux de dopage actif de l’ordre de avec une densité de défauts de l’ordre de . Ensuite, une caractérisation par KPFM couplée au nc-AFM sous ultra vide a été menée sur les nanocristaux semi-conducteur colloïdaux de pérovskites (CsPbBr3). Les expériences ont été réalisées dans le noir puis sous illumination laser avec différentes longueurs d’onde afin d’explorer les mécanismes de photo-génération de porteurs au sein des nanocristaux. / Understanding the electronic, electrical and mechanical properties of nanostructures is a key issue in nanoscience and nanotechnology. Scanning probe microscopy is an essential tool to probe and understand these properties at the nanoscale. The objective of this thesis was to characterize the electromechanical and electrostatic properties of individual or assembled colloidal nanocrystals using atomic force microscopy in ultra-high vacuum environment.The first part of the manuscript deals with the transport properties of assemblies of gold and indium tin oxide nanoparticles, forming the active areas of resistive strain gauges. Current-bias spectroscopies are measured as a function of the force applied on the cantilever and as a function of temperature. Tunneling transport is evidenced and measured from the linear regime to the Fowler Nordheim regime. The mechanical characteristic (effective Young modulus) of ligands is extracted.The second part of the thesis is devoted to the characterization of the electrostatic properties of individual indium arsenide (InAs) colloidal doped nanocrystals with sizes in the 2-8 nm range, using non-contact atomic force microscopy coupled to Kelvin probe force microscopy. This aim was to understand the charge transfer mechanisms between doped or undoped nanocrystals and their environment, in a physical regime of strong quantum and Coulomb confinement. Experimental results enable to measure a doping level of and a defect density of about . Kelvin probe force microscopy measurements were in addition performed on colloidal perovskite (CsPbBr3) semiconductor nanocrystals in order to explore the photo-generation mechanisms of carriers.

Electrical contacts to devices which pose low resistance continue to be of interest as the dimensions of devices decrease and nanotechnology demands better means of creating electrical access. Continued improvement in the performance of ohmic contacts requires techniques to better characterise and quantify the performance of such contacts. In order to study and estimate the resistance of such contacts or the resistance posed by the interface(s) in such contacts, accurate test structures and evaluation techniques need to be used. The resistance posed by an interface is quantified using its specific contact resistivity (SCR), which is denoted using ƒâc (units: £[cm2). Cross Kelvin resistor (CKR) test structures have been used for the measurement of low values of SCR. A simplified approach to this problem of SCR evaluation (developed previously at RMIT University) using the CKR test structures with varying contact sizes was used and during this work was shown to be accurate for the estimation of low values (less than10-8 £[cm2) of SCR. The silicides of interest in this study were titanium silicide (TiSi2) and nickel silicide (NiSi). These thin films are known for their low resistivity and low barrier heights to both n-type and p-type silicon. The research involved thin film formation and substantial materials characterisation of these thin films. The silicide thin films were formed by vacuum annealing metal thin films on silicon substrates. Silicide thin films formed from metal films deposited by DC magnetron sputtering and electron beam evaporation were compared. The composition, crystallographic orientation, and morphology of these thin films were studied using spectroscopy (AES, SIMS, RBS, in situ Raman spectroscopy), diffraction (Bragg-Brentano and glancing angle XRD, RHEED), and microscopy techniques (TEM, SEM, and AFM). TiSi2 and NiSi thin films were also found to be suitable for microsystems fabrication due to their ability to withstand wet etching of silicon using potassium hydroxide. The SCR of aluminium-titanium silicide ohmic contacts was evaluated to be as low as 6 x 10-10 ƒÇcm2, which is the lowest reported for any two- layer single-interface contact. Characterisation of ohmic contacts comprising of aluminium, nickel silicide, and doped silicon (with shallow implants) were also carried out using the same technique. SCR values as low as 5.0 x 10-9 ƒÇcm2 for contacts to antimony-doped silicon and 3.5 x 10-9 £[cm2 to boron-doped silicon were evaluated.

La diffraction d'ondes élastiques par une fissure dans un matériau est un problème majeur en contrôle non destructif. Une modélisation réaliste consiste à prendre en compte une condition de contact unilatéral sur la fissure. Dans cette thèse, on étudie des problèmes dynamiques de contact unilatéral dans des milieux fissurés. Au niveau théorique, on présente un résultat d'existence pour un milieu viscoélastique de Kelvin-Voigt fissuré, pour lequel on considère une condition de contact unilatéral avec frottement non local (régularisé). Ce résultat est obtenu en utilisant une méthode de pénalisation et des propriétés de compacité. L'étude numérique porte sur le problème de l'élastodynamique avec contact unilatéral sans frottement, qui reste un problème ouvert sur le plan mathématique. Pour le résoudre, on utilise la méthode des domaines fictifs. On propose pour cela une formulation du problème en contraintes-déplacements-multiplicateurs de Lagrange. Un élément fini adapté est utilisé pour la discrétisation en espace et permet d'obtenir un schéma explicite en temps, par condensation de masse. Plusieurs schémas de discrétisation en temps sont présentés: un schéma implicite décentré dont on démontre la stabilité, un schéma implicite centré qui apparaît stable au vu des expériences numériques. Des résultats de validation sont présentés ainsi que des résultats concernant des applications plus réalistes.

This thesis investigates physical processes in Lake Erie, a large, shallow mid-latitude lake, from two perspectives: climate change impacts on the thermal structure and dissolved oxygen concentration and small-scale eddy dynamics generated by internal Kelvin wave propagation. A three-dimensional hydrodynamic and aquatic ecological coupled model ELCOM-CAEDYM, validated by the field data collected in 2008, is first used to investigate the responses of the thermal structure and dissolved oxygen concentration in Lake Erie to potential changes in air temperature and wind speed. A new method is presented to define spatially and temporally varying regions for the epilimnion, thermocline, and hypolimnion. Four metrics are selected to quantify the characteristics of the thermal structure: mean epilimnion temperature, mean hypolimnion temperature, onset and breakdown of stratification, and thermocline depth. Exploiting the power of the three dimensional model to provide a more authentic characterization of thermal structure in such large lakes, it is shown that patterns inferred from simple isotherm dynamics, as typically done with one dimensional models, are not always accurate. In the dissolved oxygen studies similar analyses are presented. Three factors related to lake hydrodynamics have strong influences on hypolimnetic hypoxia: water temperature, stratification duration, and hypolimnion thickness. The present results show the potential for complicated and interactive effects of climate forcing on important biogeochemical processes in Lake Erie as well as other large mid-latitude lakes. Taking advantage of high performance computing, the generation of eddies when a baroclinic Kelvin wave propagates past a peninsula is studied using the MITgcm. The grid resolution can be refined from 2 km to 200 m in the parallel computing environment. With the finer resolution small-scale processes which cannot be resolved in the coarse resolution applied previously are able to be explored. The eddy dynamics are studied in detail in both an idealized lake and in Lake Erie. This work presents a first attempt at simulating small-scale hydrodynamic processes in large lakes and contributes to our understanding of how energy is moved from large scales (the scale of the basins in Lake Erie) to smaller scales (the scale of the peninsula or Point Pelee).