Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / This study explores second and third year students' and teachers‟ views on factors that hinder or facilitate the mastery of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) in the Science and Engineering Technology Higher Institutions of learning in Rwanda (KIST) and seeks to establish the extent to which the current programme meets the needs of the students. This is done by highlighting a whole range of teacher and student perspectives on the EAP programme. Two key requirements invite students to write their academic assignments in the form of research proposals and research project reports. In order to help them perform well in their field subjects, KIST introduced a department of English with a General English Programme under the umbrella of the then School of Language Studies (SORAS) in 1997. The department‟s first assigned mission was to teach English to students in all departments in a bid to support and encourage them to cope with their field specific courses which are taught in English. Rwanda‟s National Council for Higher Education (2007), on language teaching and learning, states that the trio, that is Kinyarwanda (the Mother Tongue and national language) and English and French (as foreign languages), should be taught at primary, secondary and higher iv education levels in order to reconcile the divide between Rwandan returnees (who had lived abroad for many decades) and locals. It is in this context that KIST, one of the institutions of higher learning, adopted the bilingual policy to cater to students‟ needs to learn both French and English as media of academic communication. However, after Rwanda‟s integration into the East African Community and the Commonwealth, English has been officially adopted as the medium of instruction in all schools and higher institutions of education. That is why there was a sudden language shift in 2006 from French to English as a medium of instruction at KIST. French and Kinyarwanda are now merely taught as subjects. The motive behind the move was to cater for Rwanda‟s needs to fully participate in the economic community of East African Community in general and in the global economy in particular. The move drastically affected students‟ ability to read and write English in their respective disciplines. The move also affected lecturers of other speciality areas. To avert the obvious challenges emanating from this sudden shift in language policy, the Institute introduced the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programmes under the then KIST School of Language Studies (SOLAS) and the KIST Language Centre. However, appropriate instructional materials for such courses have not been easily available. Given this situation, English teachers have had to create their own materials rather than the existing generalised and pre-packaged language teaching materials. As a result, students‟ specific needs for induction into a scientific writing community at tertiary level have rarely been met. It is against this background that the study seeks to investigate factors that are facilitating and the mastery of EAP. The study operates on post-colonial/post-structuralist theoretical perspectives. These were founded on the analytical framework that is guided by thematic and/or conceptual underpinnings of language policy in the post-colonial Africa. Thus, English Language Teaching (ELT), developed into v English as a second and additional language that is multi-semiotic and multi-modality in EAP and science genres, focusing mostly on its academic literacy, identity, ideology, power and agency, as well as its investment in language teaching and learning and the scientific community practice.

This study investigated the implementation progress of the National Language Policy (NLP) of South Africa (SA) by reviewing pertinent research related to Language Policy (LP) initiatives. In particular, the study explored the implications of the NLP implementation on multilingual teaching and learning practices, especially practices aimed at developing proficiency in the Language of Learning and Teaching (LOLT). In particular, the LP implementation initiatives to support a multilingual practice community at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU) were overviewed. The study focused on and assessed the AHZ Project multilingual initiative in the Department of Applied Language Studies (DALS) at NMMU. The AHZ Project multilingual initiative included text translation and multilingual tutorial strategies to assist isiXhosa-speaking students understand grammatical concepts. As a result, an aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of the AHZ Project by assessing the perceptions of English Language Studies (LES111) students and lecturers who were responsible for implementing the initiative. Finally, the research aimed to determine reasons for the apparent slow progress of implementing multilingualism as a teaching and learning practice as well as the underlying constraints of implementing the NLP at Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). A mixed-method approach was selected to explore the aims of the research study as both quantitative and qualitative data collection tools were used. As the AHZ Project initiative was the study’s data sample, data was collected by conducting three face-to-face semi-structured interviews with two LES111 lecturers and a tutor as well as one focus-group interview with eight student participants. In addition, a LEC online assessment and 284 LES111 reflective paragraphs were analysed. NVivo 10 qualitative software was used for the coding of the data and a descriptive analysis of the interviews as well as the LEC online assessment was employed. To code and analyse the face-to-face semi-structured and focus-group interview transcripts, dominant themes from the study’s literature review, for example, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Mother Tongue (MT) transfer were used. The reflective paragraphs were analysed manually using a quantitative coding approach. From the data coding, the study’s findings were determined and interpreted. The LEC assessment confirmed that the students were not coping with the LOLT. By taking cognisance of the AHZ Project strategies and investigating the perceptions of the participants towards the initiative, conclusions were drawn. These conclusions indicated positive attitudes towards the multilingual language practices as implemented by the AHZ Project initiative. In addition, the perceptions towards identity, language status, mother tongue education and language transfer were articulated. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations were made to promote the use of African Languages as LOLTs in teaching and learning classroom practices. Recommendations were also made for future research relating to the teaching of African Languages (ALs) in the schooling sector.

This research investigated the impact of language policy implementation towards the enhancement of community participation in the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality (NMMM).The NMMM is an organisation tasked with ensuring equal distribution of services to local communities. This municipality was chosen on the basis of its commitment to communicate effectively with the community and in turn encourage the community to participate fully in municipal activities. The study is conducted within the parameters of the Constitution of South Africa (1996) which states that in order to ensure language equity, all official languages must be used for the promotion of multilingualism and advancement of communities. The study therefore investigated the language policy of the NMMM and its implementation with regard to the use of all three official languages of the region, namely English, isiXhosa and Afrikaans for organisational communication. Gaps in the implementation of the municipal language policy were identified by acquiring information from selected officials responsible for service delivery and selected members of the communities who receive the services. A literature survey was conducted to investigate and conceptualise the nature of language policy development and to determine the responsibilities for policy implementation. A descriptive approach was used in the study, with the data collection coming from primary sources, such as NMMM officials and members of the community; and secondary sources, such as municipal records. A number of recommendations regarding the improvement of language policy implementation by the municipality’s Language Unit were made. It is envisaged that these changes could impact positively in encouraging community participation and ultimately improve service delivery.

This sociolinguistic study examines issues of corpus, status and acquisition in Language Planning in Sesotho and isiXhosa in the Eastern Cape. Language plays an important role in the lives of its speakers in society as they interact. Chapter 1 of this study provides the background, definitions of terms used, the objective of the study, the statement of the problem, the research methods used and the literature reviewed. Chapter 2 addresses the context, orientations, stages, and frameworks or types of language planning. Corpus planning forms an integral part of this study. This chapter also looks at different ways of developing terminology. Lastly, the chapter discusses the relationship between corpus planning and purism. Chapter 3 provides the other two types or frameworks of language planning namely, status and acquisition planning. Goals of language planning, and variables for language planning are also discussed in chapter 3. Chapter 4 looks at principles of language planning. Chapter 5 deals with the Language-in-Education Policy, the Eastern Cape Provincial Language Policy Framework, language attitudes and responses to language planning and language policy. Chapter 6 presents the findings and challenges facing the development and use of African languages one of which is Sesotho, as prescribed in the Constitution of the country. A few suggestions and different approaches towards language awareness campaigns are presented in this chapter. Lastly, this chapter concludes the study.

From 2006-2008, both New Brunswick and Nova Scotia proposed changes to their French second language (FSL) policies and programs. In observing the cases, it becomes clear that government officials made use of policy instruments to both implement policy and navigated the policy process. This work builds off existing literature that seeks to understand the instrument selection process, as well as the impact of policy tools on the policy-making process and more specifically, on the actors involved directly and indirectly in it. Using a framework that incorporates components of Contextual Interaction Theory and elements of procedural policy instrument scholarship, the project endeavours to identify what instruments were used to develop and implement FSL policy in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, as well as to comprehend why the tools were selected. The dissertation relies on document analysis and semi-structured interviews conducted with government officials and stakeholders to determine that instrument selection is based on the actors’ cognitions, motivations, and available/accessible resources. Furthermore, legitimacy plays an integral role in the selection of instruments. Government policymakers are faced with varying degrees of legitimacy, as expressed by actors indirectly involved in the policy process. Inevitably, these actors react to policy content and the policy process, which leads to sometimes contentious interactions. The current research expands on the educational policy literature by using a lens that accounts for the role of instruments in the policy process and provides a nuanced understanding of how the actors’ interactions shape and influence policy-making. It makes an original contribution to the policy instruments literature by developing a framework that accounts for the selection criteria used by both policymakers and stakeholders when choosing policy tools and resources. This dissertation contributes to the discipline of public administration and the field of public policy primarily by expounding the explanatory value of policy instruments regarding what they can tell us about the policy process, policy-making and policy outcomes. It does this by looking at how it is actors both directly and indirectly involved in the policy process interpret policy instruments and shows how government’s policy-making capacity is constrained not only by the resources available to it but by the resources accessible to actors indirectly involved in the policy process. Looking at the reciprocal nature of tool selection and tool implementation helps to explain policy-making and outcomes, as well as accounts for the roles of actors both proximately and peripherally involved in the process.

La présente étude a pour objectif de constituer un dossier terminologique en mathématiques dans la perspective d’une éducation bilingue français/lyèlé. Cela intervient dans un contexte où les enseignants du primaire en zone lyèléphone ont des difficultés pour ce qui concerne l’usage d’un langage approprié pour la transmission des connaissances mathématiques. La recherche se situe au carrefour de deux domaines différents : la sociolinguistique et la terminologie. Si sur le plan sociolinguistique, l’analyse a porté sur les représentations des enseignants au sujet des langues d’enseignement et des pratiques pédagogiques, la terminologie se pose ici comme un secteur plus pratique dans la mesure où le chercheur se voit appeler dans une action de recherche intervention. Pour ce qui est de la méthodologie utilisée, nous avons dans un premier temps recueilli les opinions des acteurs sur la question de l’enseignement ; par ailleurs, la plus grande partie du travail a été menée en privilégiant la démarche socio-anthropologique. Dans une telle perspective, le chercheur en effet mobilise son expérience d’enseignant mais aussi construit le lexique de façon progressive durant ses voyages sur le terrain. Le traitement des données (termes) s’est fait selon une démarche terminologique privilégiant le choix des unités linguistiques relatives aux mathématiques de base : autour d’un terme dit vedette, l’on réunit les informations relatives à la prononciation, à la sémantique, à la lexicologie, etc. Les informations en français et en lyèlé sont fournies autour du terme-vedette. Enfin, la démarche utilisée débouche sur la constitution d’un lexique français/lyèlé ; le chercheur recommande l’idée de partir de ce travail comme modèle pour construire d’autres lexiques et curricula dans d’autres domaines et dans d’autres langues du Burkina Faso. / This study aims at putting together a terminology case file in mathematics with a view to a French/Lyèlé bilingual education. This takes place in a context where elementary teachers in Lyèlé-speaking zones have difficulties identifying an appropriate language for the transmission of mathematical knowledge.This research is at the crossroads of two different domains: sociolinguistics and terminology. On the sociolinguistics front, the analysis focused on the representations of teachers on the topic of teaching languages and teaching practices. Terminology is a more practical field as the researcher is in an interventive research dynamic.Concerning the methodology employed, first we gathered the opinions of teachers regarding education; besides, most of the work was done following the socio-anthropological approach; in such a perspective, the researcher both mobilises his own teaching experience and progressively builds the glossary during his travels in the field.Treatment of the data (terms) was done following a terminological approach privileging the choice of linguistical units linked to basic mathematics: we compile the information relating to pronunciation, semantics, lexicology, etc., around a “star” term. The information in French and Lyèlé are supplied according to the star term.Finally, the approach used leads to the constitution of a French/Lyèlé lexicon; the researcher recommends using this study as a starting point to build other lexicons and curricula in other domains and in other Burkina Faso languages.

Doctor Educationis / This research has sought to investigate the language policy of Namibian schools against the background of international literature on the advantages of mother tongue as medium of instruction during the initial years of school. The historical background of the formulation and implementation of the current policy is dealt with in Chapter 2. The theoretical aspects of language planning as explained in the literature will focus on aspects like the underlying principles for language planning. This chapter will furthermore discuss information regarding the status and the use of the mother tongue as medium of instruction in Namibia during the first three years of school. In Chapter 4 a literature review of Cummins's linguistic interdependence principle, as well as the different options or models for a bilingual language approach in education, is discussed in detail and compared to the Namibian situation to find the best possible model which could be adapted for Namibia. Chapter 5 investigates the results of a survey that has been conducted in Namibia to determine the level of English language proficiency of teachers. These findings are compared to find a relation between repetition rates of learners, Grade 10 examination results per region, as well as the teacher qualifications per region. Chapter 6 proposes a gradual bilingual language model for Namibia. First the rationale will be dealt with, followed by a detailed description of the model and how it is to be implemented. Chapters 7 and 8 deal with the research methodology that was undertaken in the form of a questionnaire and interviews with educationists regarding the use of the real medium of instruction, the perceptions of educationists on the language policy, and their proposals to change the language policy. Their perceptions of the proposed language model are discussed in order to identify ideas on how to streamline it. In Chapter 9 questions concerning the implications of implementing a bilingual language policy with regard to what is possible, practicable, and affordable will be dealt with. The last chapter, Chapter 10, will compare the current language policy, a policy proposed by NIED, and the model proposed here, before a number of recommendations are made.

Diploma thesis "Language policies of Canada: An Evaluation of Trudeau's Policy of Official Bilingualism" deals with Canadian English-French language duality. The thesis describes evolution of Canadian language policies on federal as well as on provincial level. On federal level, long-time prime minister of Canada Pierre Elliott Trudeau has achieved a goal to create fully bilingual federal government; on provincial level, the thesis deals mainly with the province of Québec as it has the most far reaching language legislation in Canada. The thesis evaluates Trudeau's aim to deal with Québec separatism and nationalism by stressing out new pan-Canadian identity of bilingual state reaching "from coast to coast".

Im Gegensatz zu einer proklamierten Notwendigkeit einer Nationalisierung und Monolingualisierung politischer Prozesse entwickelt die Dissertation eine alternative Perspektive, die die Praktiken des postkolonialen und polylingualen Kontexts Kenia zum Ausgang nimmt. Das primäre Erkenntnisinteresse der Arbeit, die Zusammenhänge von Sprache, Nation und Politik, verortet sich in diesem Spannungsfeld von monolingualem Ideal und polylingualem Alltag. Dabei wird die (Aus-) Nutzung der Kategorien von Nation und Sprache in sozialen und politischen Praktiken in der Analyse dergleichen und der Ableitung deskriptiver Kategorien transparent. Die Komplexität und Multiplität der sprachlich regulierten Identitätskonstrukte rückt dabei in den Fokus der Auseinandersetzung und bedingt neue Lesarten der Nation und Sprache. In dem deskriptiv empirischen Ansatz wird Nation als Analyse Kategorien verstanden. Die Apriori Annahme eines ethnisch „falschen“ Bewusstseins, das die als notwendig erachtete „richtige“ nationale Integration verhindere, wird verworfen und mit einer „Situationsbezogenheit, Flexibilität und Manipulierbarkeit der ethnischen Zugehörigkeit“ (Lentz 1995, 122) konfrontiert. Modelle, die ihre Analyse auf einem monolingualen Ideal gründen, können die komplexen und multiplen Heterogenitäten des gelebten Alltags nicht erfassen. Die zahlreichen zu Kenia veröffentlichten Analysen verlieren diese wenig gefestigten Identifikationen aus ihrem Blickfeld und übergehen die situative und soziale Konstruktion der Kategorien. In der Analyse wird gezeigt, wie heterogen die nationalen Praktiken tatsächlich sind (Kenya*n). Die Funktion von Sprache in der Ausführung des Kenya*n (Talking Kenya*n) rückt ins Zentrum des Interesses. Eine dynamische Anpassung der Sprachen an die Bedingungen der Kommunikation wird sichtbar, die eine institutionalisierte ethno-linguisierte Grenzziehungen in einigen Situationen überwindet und dort aufrechterhält, wo sie als notwendig erachtet wird. Abhängig von Kontext, Akteuren und Interessen wird die Nation rekursiv geformt und in jeder Ausführung iterativ aktualisiert. Den Kontext der Analyse stellen jüngste politische Entwicklungen in Kenia, die allgemeinen Präsidentschafts- und Parlamentswahlen 2013, bereit, die in ihrer Ausführung zwar einmalig, aber mit vorangegangen politischen Entscheidungsprozessen (Wahlen 2002, 2007, Referendum 2010) in Bezug zu bringen sind. Auf Basis dieser intensiven politischen Debatten können kontextualisierte und empirisch fundierte Interpretationen in den Bezug auf den Nexus von Sprache und Nation abgeleitet werden.:1. Einführung 2 Methodologie 3 Die Konstruktion der Nation in Kenia: Eine Nation. Ein Volk. Eine Sprache 4 Talking Kenya*n 5 Kenia Be-Deuten: Mkenya, Ukenya und Mawakenya im Vergleich 6 Eine Kritische Morphologie des Kenya*n: multiple Deutungen und dynamische Praktiken 7 Von der Politisierung der Sprache und Sprachwissenschaft 8 Literaturverzeichnis 9 Anhang

Im Gegensatz zu einer proklamierten Notwendigkeit einer Nationalisierung und Monolingualisierung politischer Prozesse entwickelt die Dissertation eine alternative Perspektive, die die Praktiken des postkolonialen und polylingualen Kontexts Kenia zum Ausgang nimmt. Das primäre Erkenntnisinteresse der Arbeit, die Zusammenhänge von Sprache, Nation und Politik, verortet sich in diesem Spannungsfeld von monolingualem Ideal und polylingualem Alltag. Dabei wird die (Aus-) Nutzung der Kategorien von Nation und Sprache in sozialen und politischen Praktiken in der Analyse dergleichen und der Ableitung deskriptiver Kategorien transparent. Die Komplexität und Multiplität der sprachlich regulierten Identitätskonstrukte rückt dabei in den Fokus der Auseinandersetzung und bedingt neue Lesarten der Nation und Sprache. In dem deskriptiv empirischen Ansatz wird Nation als Analyse Kategorien verstanden. Die Apriori Annahme eines ethnisch „falschen“ Bewusstseins, das die als notwendig erachtete „richtige“ nationale Integration verhindere, wird verworfen und mit einer „Situationsbezogenheit, Flexibilität und Manipulierbarkeit der ethnischen Zugehörigkeit“ (Lentz 1995, 122) konfrontiert. Modelle, die ihre Analyse auf einem monolingualen Ideal gründen, können die komplexen und multiplen Heterogenitäten des gelebten Alltags nicht erfassen. Die zahlreichen zu Kenia veröffentlichten Analysen verlieren diese wenig gefestigten Identifikationen aus ihrem Blickfeld und übergehen die situative und soziale Konstruktion der Kategorien. In der Analyse wird gezeigt, wie heterogen die nationalen Praktiken tatsächlich sind (Kenya*n). Die Funktion von Sprache in der Ausführung des Kenya*n (Talking Kenya*n) rückt ins Zentrum des Interesses. Eine dynamische Anpassung der Sprachen an die Bedingungen der Kommunikation wird sichtbar, die eine institutionalisierte ethno-linguisierte Grenzziehungen in einigen Situationen überwindet und dort aufrechterhält, wo sie als notwendig erachtet wird. Abhängig von Kontext, Akteuren und Interessen wird die Nation rekursiv geformt und in jeder Ausführung iterativ aktualisiert. Den Kontext der Analyse stellen jüngste politische Entwicklungen in Kenia, die allgemeinen Präsidentschafts- und Parlamentswahlen 2013, bereit, die in ihrer Ausführung zwar einmalig, aber mit vorangegangen politischen Entscheidungsprozessen (Wahlen 2002, 2007, Referendum 2010) in Bezug zu bringen sind. Auf Basis dieser intensiven politischen Debatten können kontextualisierte und empirisch fundierte Interpretationen in den Bezug auf den Nexus von Sprache und Nation abgeleitet werden.:1 Einführung 2 Methodologie 3 Die Konstruktion der Nation in Kenia: Eine Nation. Ein Volk. Eine Sprache 4 Talking Kenya*n 5 Kenia Be-Deuten: Mkenya, Ukenya und Mawakenya im Vergleich 6 Eine Kritische Morphologie des Kenya*n: multiple Deutungen und dynamische Praktiken 7 Von der Politisierung der Sprache und Sprachwissenschaft 8 Literaturverzeichnis 9 Anhang