MScEng / Thesis (MScEng (Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Accurate dimensional measurement devices are critical for international industrial competitiveness for South Africa. An overview of all the necessary components of a laser tracking system using a multilateration technique for very accurate dimensional metrology is presented. A prototype laser tracker station was built to further investigate this type of system. The prototype successfully tracks a target within a volume of at least 200 200 200 mm3, approximately 300 mm away from the tracker. This system includes the mechanical design of a prototype tracker station, electronic implementation of ampli cation and motor control circuits, a tracking control algorithm, microcontroller programming and interfacing, as well as a user interface. Kinematic modelling along with Monte Carlo analyses nd the main error source of such a tracker as the beam steering mechanism gimbal axes misalignment. Multilateration is also motivated by the results found by the analysis. Furthermore, an initial sequential multilateration algorithm is developed and tested. The results of these tests are promising and motivate the use of multilateration over a single beam laser tracking system. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Dit is van kritieke belang dat Suid-Afrika akkurate dimensionele metingstoestelle ontwikkel vir internasionale industriële medinging. 'n Oorsig van al die nodige komponente vir 'n Laser-Volgsisteem, wat slegs van multilaterasie gebruik maak om baie akkurate drie dimensionele metings te kan neem, word in hierdie projek voorgestel. 'n Prototipe Laser-Volgsisteem-stasie word gebou om so 'n sisteem verder te ondersoek. Die prototipe slaag wel daarin om 'n teiken, binne 'n volume van 200 200 200 mm3 op 'n afstand van omtrent 300 mm te volg. Die sisteem sluit die meganiese ontwerp van die sodanige stasie, elektroniese seinversterking, motorbeheer, 'n volgingsbeheer algoritme, mikroverwerker programeering en intergrasie, asook 'n gebruikerskoppelvlak program in. Kinematiese modelering, tesame met Monte Carlo simulasies, toon aan dat die hoof oorsaak van metingsfoute by so 'n stasie by die rotasie-asse van die laserstraal-stuurmeganisme, wat nie haaks is nie, lê. Die multilaterasie metode word ook verder ondersteun deur dié modelering. 'n Algoritme wat sekwensiële multilateratsie toepas word boonop ontwikkel en getoets. Die resultate van die toetse dui daarop dat die algoritme funksioneer en dat daar voordele daarin kan wees om so 'n metode in plaas van 'n Enkelstraal-Volgsisteem te gebruik.

Aluminum (Al) and its alloys are widely used in various technological applications, mainly due to the excellent thermal conductivity, non-magnetic, ecofriendly, easy formability and good recyclability. However due to the inferior corrosion resistance its applications are hampered in various engineering sectors. Besides, the corrosion related failures such as leakage of gas from pipeline, catastrophic breakdown of bridges and fire accidents in processing plants further puts the human life in jeopardy. Within the United States over $ 400 billion dollars per year are spent over research to understand and prevent the corrosion related failures. Recently, the development of transition metal(TM) aluminides (AlxTMy, where, TM = Mo, W, Ta, Nb, Cr, Zr and V) has received the global attention mainly due to high strength at elevated temperatures, light-weight, excellent corrosion and wear resistance. In light of this, surface modification via laser surface alloying (LSA) is a promising engineering approach to mitigate the corrosion and wear problems. In the present study the attempts are made to study the Al-Mo, Al-W, Al-Nb, and Al-Ta systems as a potential corrosion resistant coatings on aluminum. The refractory metal (Mo, W, Nb, Ta) precursor deposit was spray coated separately on aluminum substrate and was subsequently surface alloyed using a continuous wave diode-pumped ytterbium laser at varying laser energy densities. Microstructural analysis was conducted using scanning electron microscopy and further X-ray diffractometry was carried out to evaluate the various phases evolved during laser surface alloying. Corrosion resistance of laser alloyed coatings were evaluated using open circuit potential, cyclic potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements were performed in 0.6 M NaCl solution (pH:6.9±0.2, 23˚C). Open circuit potential measurements indicate the more stable (steady state) potential values over long periods after laser surface alloying. Cyclic polarization results indicated reduction in the corrosion current density, enhancement in the polarization resistance, and increase in coating/protective efficiency with increase in laser energy density compared to untreated aluminum. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements also indicated an increase in charge transfer resistance after laser surface alloying of refractory metals on aluminum. Additionally, first principle calculations of thermodynamic, electronic and elastic properties of intermetallics evolved during LSA were also thoroughly investigated to correlate the corrosion performance of intermetallic coatings with these properties. The present study indicates that novel Al-Mo, Al-W, Al-Nb, and Al-Ta intermetallics has a great potential for light weight structural applications with enhanced corrosion resistance.

The current study focuses on phase stability and evolution in the titanium-zinc titanium-copper and titanium-antimony systems. The study utilized the Laser Engineering Net Shaping (LENS™) processing technique to deposit compositionally graded samples of three binary system in order to allow the assessment of phase stability and evolution as a function of composition and temperature the material is subjected to. Through LENS™ processing it was possible to create graded samples from Ti-xSb (up to 13wt%) and Ti-xCu (up to 16wt%). The LENS™ deposited gradient were solutionized, and step quenched to specific aging temperature, and the resulting microstructures and phase were characterized utilizing XRD, EDS, SEM, FIB and TEM. The Ti-Zn system proved incapable of being LENS™ deposited due to the low vaporization temperature of Zn; however, a novel processing approach was developed to drip liquid Zn onto Ti powder at temperatures above β transus temperature of Ti (882 ◦C) and below the vaporization temperature of Zn (907 ◦C). The product of this processing technique was characterized in a similar way as the graded LENS™ depositions. From measurements performed on Ti-Sb it seems that Sb could be a potential α stabilizer in Ti due to the presence of a mostly homogeneous α grains throughout the gradient; however, from XRD it can be understood that a titanium antimonide phase is present. From results obtained from the Ti-Zn samples, it can be surmised that the eutectoid reaction seems to be active, i.e. The eutectoid reaction is kinetically fast, as concluded by the presence of pearlitic structures. Finally, for the Ti-Cu system this work has been attempted to prove or disprove the existence of the Ti3Cu through the use of XRD and TEM SAD patterns. From XRD spectra collected there are peaks belonging to the Ti3Cu orthorhombic phase along with Ti2Cu and α-Ti phase. In addition to the Ti-Cu system displayed structures associated with divorced eutectoid decomposition mechanism, and at low undercooling seems to be prone to forming solid state dendrites.

This work presents a new digital cooking process that utilizes heat from lasers to cookfood products. Unlike conventional cooking appliances, which heat an entire area by some uniform amount, lasers are unique in that they provide precision directional heating, they have a small form factor, and they are highly controllable using software. Lasers—as a cooking appliance—are of particular interest since they have a heating resolution that is on the same order of magnitude as the deposition path of a 3D food printer. While food printing is great for customized meal creation, we can print foods to millimeter resolution but we lack the ability to cook at this same resolution. Here, I primarily focus on the characterization of three different types of lasers: (1) a blue laser operating at 445 nm, (2) a near-infrared (NIR) laser operating at 980 nm, and (3) a mid-infrared (MIR) laser operating at 10.6 µm. Initial cooking apparatuses used a set of mirror galvanometers to direct visible blue light for cooking, then future iterations relied on the movement of a 3-axis gantry. Both blue and NIR lasers are diode lasers that can be mounted on a machine and the MIR laser is a standalone CO₂ gas laser. I characterize the heating behavior of the aforementioned lasers using dough, salmon, and chicken as model food systems. Different modes of cooking can be achieved by changing the wavelength of the light: infrared (IR) lasers are more well-suited for non-enzymatic browning and blue lasers are best for subsurface cooking (i.e. starch gelatinization of dough, protein denaturation of salmon and chicken). Precision “pulsed heating” with lasers also allows one to achieve food safe temperatures with greater accuracy and reduces overcooking, which leads to more moist food samples. Laser-baked dough can also achieve starch gelatinization. Food safe temperatures and browning can be achieved in dough, salmon, and chicken. Lastly, color development—as a result of laser exposure—is similar to conventionally cooked foods.

Thesis (MSc (Physics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / External cavity diode lasers are used increasingly as sources of light in applications ranging from industrial photonic systems to basic laboratory research on the interaction of light and atoms. External cavity diode lasers offer more stable output frequency and narrow spectral bandwidth than the typical free-running diode lasers. These characteristics are achieved by exploiting the sensitivity of diode lasers to external optical feedback. In this study the design and development of an external cavity diode laser system for future applications in spectroscopy and laser cooling of rubidium atoms is presented. The external cavity diode laser including mechanical components and control electronics of the system is developed from basic components. The system uses frequency selective optical feedback from a diffraction grating in a Littrow configuration to provide collimated, narrow-band, frequency tunable light near 780 nm. The external cavity diode laser is designed to increase the mode-hop-free frequency tuning range, and allow accurate frequency tuning and stabilisation. A low-noise current source and a temperature controller for thermal stability were developed as part of the system since the output frequency changes with temperature and current. The temperature controller is optimised experimentally for the thermal characteristics of the external cavity. An electronic sidelock servo circuit for frequency locking of the external cavity diode laser to an external reference for long term frequency stabilisation is proposed and discussed. The servo circuit electrically controls the grating tilt and the current through the diode laser in order to lock the frequency of the diode laser. The external cavity diode laser is optimised and characterised near 780 nm. Results obtained in this study indicate that the external cavity diode laser is suitable for future applications in spectroscopy and laser cooling of neutral rubidium atoms.

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is one of the main methods used to join structural members. One of the largest challenges involved in production of welds is ensuring the quality of the weld. One of the main factors attributing to weld quality is penetration depth. Automatic control of the welding process requires non-contact, non-destructive sensors that can operate in the presence of high temperatures and electrical noise found in the welding environment. Inspection using laser generation and electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) reception of ultrasound was found to satisfy these conditions. Using this technique, the time of flight of the ultrasonic wave is measured and used to calculate penetration depth. Previous works have shown that penetration depth measurement performance is drastically reduced when performed during welding. This work seeks to realize in-process penetration depth measurement by compensating for errors caused by elevated temperature. Neuro-fuzzy models are developed that predict penetration depth based on in-process time of flight measurements and the welding process input. Two scenarios are considered in which destructive penetration depth measurements are or are not available for model training. Results show the two scenarios are successful. When destructive measurements are unavailable, model error is comparable to that of offline ultrasonic measurements. When destructive measurements are available, measurement error is reduced by 50% compared to offline ultrasonic measurements. The two models can be effectively applied to permit in-process penetration depth measurements for the purpose of real-time monitoring and control. This will reduce material, production time, and labor costs and increase the quality of welded parts.

Laser Induced Forward Transfer (LIFT) techniques show promise as a disruptive technology which will enable the placement of components smaller than what conventional pick-and-place techniques are capable of today. Limitations of current die-attach techniques are presented and discussed and present the opportunity for a new placement method. This study introduces the Thermo-Mechanical Selective Laser Assisted Die Transfer (tmSLADT) process and is an application of the unique blistering behavior of a dynamic releasing layer when irradiated by low energy focused UV laser pulses. The potential of tmSLADT as the next generation LIFT technique is demonstrated by the "touchless" transfer of 65 μm thick silicon tiles between two substrates spaced 195 μm apart. Additionally, the advantages of an enclosed blister-actuator mechanism over previously studied ablative and thermal releasing techniques are discussed. Finally, experimental results studying transfer precision indicate this non optimized die transfer process compares with, and may exceed, the placement precision of current assembly techniques. / Defense Microelectronics Activity (DMEA) under agreement number H94003-09-2-0905

A matrix of variably processed Fe-30at%Ni was deposited with variations in laser travel speeds as well and laser powers. A complete shift in phase stability occurred as a function of varying laser travel speed. At slow travel speeds, the microstructure was dominated by a columnar fcc phase. Intermediate travel speeds yielded a mixed microstructure comprised of both the columnar fcc and a martensite-like bcc phase. At the fastest travel speed, the microstructure was dominated by the bcc phase. This shift in phase stability subsequently affected the magnetic properties, specifically saturation magnetization. Ni-Fe-Mo and Ni-Fe-V permalloys were deposited from an elemental blend of powders as well. Both systems exhibited featureless microstructures dominated by an fcc phase. Magnetic measurements yielded saturation magnetizations on par with conventionally processed permalloys, however coercivities were significantly larger; this difference is attributed to microstructural defects that occur during the additive manufacturing process.

The objective of this research is to develop a method to evaluate important weld dimensions in thin plates by using laser generated ultrasounds and EMAT receiver. The superimposed laser sources (SLS) technique is developed to generate narrowband Lamb waves with fixed wavelengths in thin plates. The method permits the flexibility of selecting desired wavelength. The signal processing procedure that combines wavenumber-frequency (k-w) domain filtering and synthetic phase tuning (SPT) is used to further reduce the complexity of Lamb waves. The k-w domain filtering technique helps to filter out the unwanted wave components traveling at the direction that is not of interest to us and the SPT technique is applied to amplify and isolate a particular Lamb wave mode. The signal processing procedure facilitates the calculation of reflection coefficients of Lamb waves that result from the presence of weld joints. The SLS and signal processing procedure are then applied to measure reflection coefficients in butt welds and lap welds. Two methods, the direct method and indirect method, are used to develop models that use reflection coefficients as predictors to predict these weld dimensions. The models developed in this research are shown to accurately predict weld dimensions in thin plates.

Metallic glasses possess attractive properties, such as high strength, good corrosion resistance, and superior soft magnetic performance. They also serve as precursors for synthesizing nanocrystalline materials. In addition, a new class of composites having crystalline phases embedded in amorphous matrix is evolving based on selective crystallization of metallic glasses. Therefore, crystallization of metallic glasses and its effects on properties has been a subject of interest. Previous investigations from our research group related to laser assisted crystallization of Fe-Si-B metallic glass (an excellent soft magnetic material by itself) showed a further improvement in soft magnetic performance. However, a fundamental understanding of crystallization and mechanical performance of laser treated metallic glass was essential from application point of view. In light of this, the current work employed an integrated experimental and computational approach to understand crystallization and its effects on tensile behavior of laser treated Fe-Si-B metallic glass. The time temperature cycles during laser treatments were predicted using a finite element thermal model. Structural changes in laser treated Fe-Si-B metallic glass including crystallization and phase evolution were investigated with the aid of X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, resistivity measurements, and transmission electron microscopy. The mechanical behavior was evaluated by uniaxial tensile tests with an InstronTM universal testing machine. Fracture surfaces of the metallic glass were observed using scanning electron microscopy and site specific transmission electron microscopy. Fe-Si-B metallic glass samples treated with lower laser fluence (<0.49 J/mm2) underwent structural relaxation while higher laser flounces led to partial crystallization. The crystallization temperature experienced an upward shift due to rapid heating rates of the order of 104 K/s during laser treatments. The heating cycle was followed by termination of laser upon treatment attainment of peak temperature and rapid cooling of the similar order. Such dynamic effects resulted in premature arrest of the crystallite growth leading to formation of fine crystallites/grain (~32 nm) of α-(Fe,Si) as the major component and Fe2B as the minor component. The structural relaxation, crystallization fractions of 5.6–8.6 Vol% with α-(Fe,Si) as the main component, and crystallite/grain size of the order of 12 nm obtained in laser fluence range of 0.39-0.49 J/mm2 had minimal/no influence on tensile behavior of the laser treated Fe-Si-B metallic glass foils. An increase in laser fluence led to progressive increase in crystallization fractions with considerable amounts of Fe2B (2-6 Vol%) and increase in grain size to ~30 nm. Such a microstructural evolution severely reduced the strength of Fe-Si-B metallic glass. Moreover, there was a transition in fracture surface morphology of laser treated Fe-Si-B metallic glass from vein pattern to chevron pattern. Tensile loading lacked any marked influence on the crystallization behavior of as-cast and structurally relaxed laser-treated metallic glass foils. However, a significant crystallite/grain growth/coarsening of the order of two and half times was observed in the fractured region compared to the region around it for the laser-treated partially crystallized metallic glass foils. The simultaneous effects of stress generation and temperature rise during tensile loading were considered to play a key role in crystallite/grain growth/coarsening.