Genome evolution is not always shaped by a Darwinian-fashion of vertical inheritance from ancestral lineages. The historical gene content of a species contains many atypical gene sequences showing high similarity to those of distantly related taxa. This evolutionary phenomenon is referred to as lateral gene transfer (LGT). Lateral gene transfer permits the exchange of genetic material across lineages, completely ignoring any concept of taxonomic boundary. The rapid acquisition of foreign genes into bacterial genomes has greatly obscured the historical phylogeny of prokaryotes. In this thesis we calculate the rate of LGT on a Bacillaceae phylogeny, to determine the extent to which it controls species evolution. First, we examined the evolution of the phylogeny according to a simple model of maximum likelihood. We assume equal rates of gene insertion and deletion on the phylogeny and show high rates of evolution in the genomes of B. anthracis, B. cereus, and B. thuringiensis (Bc group), representative of adaptive evolution. We then improved the model to account for differential rates of gene insertion and deletion, thus offering a more realistic model of gene evolution. Again, we demonstrate that members of the Bc group are rapidly evolving, with the rate of gene insertion being significantly higher than the rated of gene deletion. Finally, we evaluate the sole effect of LGT on the phylogeny in a simple birth-death analysis with immigration. We show that LGT is the main vehicle of gene acquisition when the number of gene families substantially increases from external taxa to members of the Bc group. Collectively, our findings suggest that the Bacillaceae genome is rapidly expanding, and that laterally transferred genes may facilitate adaptive evolution and subsistence in a new niche. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Plants and animals are characterized by intimate, enduring, often indispensable, and always complex associations with microbes. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that when the genome of a eukaryote is sequenced, a medley of bacterial sequences are produced as well. These sequences can be highly informative about the interactions between the eukaryote and its bacterial cohorts; unfortunately, they often comprise a vanishingly small constituent within a heterogeneous mixture of microbial and host sequences. Genomic analyses typically avoid the bacterial sequences in order to obtain a genome sequence for the host. Metagenomic analysis typically avoid the host sequences in order to analyze community composition and functional diversity of the bacterial component. This dissertation describes the development of a novel approach at the intersection of genomics and metagenomics, aimed at the extraction and characterization of bacterial sequences from heterogeneous sequence data using phylogenomic and bioinformatic tools. To achieve this objective, three interoperable workflows were constructed as modular computational pipelines, with built-in checkpoints for periodic interpretation and refinement. The MetaMiner workflow uses 16S small subunit rDNA analysis to enable the systematic discovery and classification of bacteria associated with a host genome sequencing project. Using this information, the ReadMiner workflow comprehensively extracts, assembles, and characterizes sequences that belong to a target microbe. Finally, AssemblySifter examines the genes and scaffolds of the eukaryotic genome for sequences associated with the target microbe. The combined information from these three workflows is used to systemically characterize a bacterial target of interest, including robust estimation of its phylogeny, assessment of its signature profile, and determination of its relationship to the associated eukaryote. This dissertation presents the development of the described methodology and its application to three eukaryotic genome projects. In the first study, the genomic sequences of a single, known endosymbiont was extracted from the genome sequencing data of its host. In the second study, a highly divergent endosymbiont was characterized from the assembled genome of its host. In the third study, genome sequences from a novel bacterium were extracted from both the raw sequencing data and assembled genome of a eukaryote that contained significant amounts of sequence from multiple competing bacteria. Taken together, these results demonstrate the usefulness of the described approach in singularly disparate situations, and strongly argue for a sophisticated, multifaceted, supervised approach to the characterization of host-associated microbes and their interactions. / Ph. D.

Submitted by Amanda Carolina Paulino de Oliveira (amanda@posgrad.fcav.unesp.br) on 2018-07-30T23:45:45Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação final - ACPO - Versão online.pdf: 8789441 bytes, checksum: a845ac98a1435e414423acdc29c30ff5 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Karina Gimenes Fernandes null (karinagi@fcav.unesp.br) on 2018-07-31T11:04:06Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 oliveira_acp_me_iabo.pdf: 8789441 bytes, checksum: a845ac98a1435e414423acdc29c30ff5 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-07-31T11:04:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 oliveira_acp_me_iabo.pdf: 8789441 bytes, checksum: a845ac98a1435e414423acdc29c30ff5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-07-04 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri 306 (XccA) é o agente causal do cancro cítrico (CC), doença endêmica que afeta a citricultura. Durante a interação patógeno-hospedeiro o sistema de secreção tipo três (SST3) codificado pela XccA age na translocação de efetores e no estabelecimento da doença. A montagem do aparato de SST3 depende da síntese, remodelagem e degradação da parede celular bacteriana, sendo este processo realizado pela ação enzimática de transglicosilases líticas de mureína (LTs). XccA codifica diversas LTs, porém, pouco é conhecido sobre a diversidade de famílias e relação com a virulência. Dentre as LTs com provável relação com a virulência, duas ORFs parálogas presentes no cromossomo e plasmídeo pXAC64, respectivamente; são genes passageiros do TnXax1, um transposon da família Tn3, relacionado a evolução e emergência da patogenicidade nas Xanthomonadales. Portanto, este estudo objetivou elucidar o provável papel e diversidade das LTs presentes no genoma de XccA, caracterizando funcionalmente as LTs presentes em TnXax1 pela técnica de mutação sítio dirigida. Foram identificadas no genoma de XccA 13 LTs, sendo 12 pertencentes às famílias: 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1F, 1G, 3A, 3B (2 cópias), 5A e 6A, e uma não classificada. A LT não classificada, é exclusiva do gênero Xanthomonas e relacionada à família 3B, porém contém um domínio adicional relacionado ao metabolismo de carboidratos. As LTs classificadas em famílias apresentam provável função relacionada com a remodelagem da parede celular para inserção de sistemas de secreção tipo 3, 4 e 6, inserção de flagelo, divisão celular, reciclagem da parede celular e degradação e controle da produção do peptidoglicano. As LTs do TnXax1 pertencem a família 3B, não são essenciais para XccA e desenvolvimento do CC, porém estão relacionadas ao aumento da virulência, diminuição da formação de biofilme, agregação e aumento na produção de goma xantana, corroborando o papel do TnXax1 como agente propagador da patogenicidade e virulência em Xanthomonadales. Em resumo, os resultados lançam novos conhecimentos frente ao papel das LTs com o metabolismo do peptidoglicano e relação com os mecanismos de transferência lateral, virulência e patogenicidade de XccA. / Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri 306 (XccA) is a causal agent of type A citrus canker (CC), one of the most devastating citriculture diseases. Type 3 Secretion Systems (T3SS) play a fundamental role in XccA pathogenicity. T3SS components are embedded in the bacterial inner and outer membrane and act as a channel for injection of effector proteins directly into the plant host cell cytosol. T3SS assembly and installation relies on bacterial cell wall synthesis, remodeling and degradation. Murein lytic transglycosylases (LT) are important in this process and are responsible for peptidoglycan cleavage and its remodeling. Information about the XccA LT arsenal is scarce: little is known about family diversity, their exact role and their connection to virulence in this bacterium. Among the LTs with probable relation to virulence, two paralogue ORFs (one in chromosome, one in pXAC64 plasmid) are passenger genes of the Tn3 family transposon TnXax1, known to play a significant role for evolution and emergence of pathogenicity in Xanthomonadales. This study addresses LT diversity in the XccA genome and examines the role of plasmid and chromosomal TnXax1 LT passenger genes using site-directed deletion mutagenesis and functional characterization. We identified 13 XccA LTs: 12 belong to families 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D (2 copies), 1F, 1G, 3A, 3B (2 copies), 5A, 6A and one which is non-categorized. This noncategorized gene, is exclusive to the Xanthomonas genus and related to the 3B family but contains an additional domain linked to carbohydrate metabolism, whilst the other catalyzes peptidoglycan biosynthesis, and is widely distributed in gammaproteobacteria. The categorized LTs are probably involved in cell wall remodeling to allow insertion of type 3, 4 and 6 secretion systems, flagellum assembly, division and recycling of cell wall and degradation and control of peptidoglycan production. The TnXax1 passenger LTs (3B family) are not essential to XccA and CC development but are implicated in virulence, biofilm production and aggregation decrease and xanthan gum production increase, corroborating the role of TnXax1 transposon as a virulence and pathogenicity propagating agent in XccA. These findings also suggest that LTs acquisition by horizontal gene transfer mediated by TnXax1 improved bacterial fitness, bringing adaptive advantages to the plant-pathogen interaction process. / 33004102070P6

<p>Currently centered on molecular data, bacterial and archaeal relationships are often based on their relative branching in 16S rRNA based phylogenetic trees. The availability of numerous bacterial genome sequences over the past two decades has provided new information for insights previously inaccessible to the field of taxonomy. Through utilization of comparative genomics, numerous molecular markers in the form of insertions and deletions within conserved regions of proteins, also known as Conserved Signature Indels or CSIs, have been discovered for various prokaryotic taxa. Using these techniques, we have analyzed relationships among the bacterial phyla of Thermotogae and Synergistetes and the conglomeration of bacterial organisms known as the PVC super-phylum. Through identification of large numbers of CSIs we have described the phyla Thermotogae and Synergistetes, and their sub-groups, in molecular terms for the first time. The identified molecular markers support a reconstruction of the current taxonomic divisions of these phyla. Similarly, previously only observed to group in phylogenetic trees, we have identified molecular markers for the PVC clade of bacterial phyla which are indicative of their shared ancestry. Further, in response to recent suggestions of extensive lateral gene transfer masking evolutionary relationships, an argument in favour of Darwinian mode of evolution for prokaryotic organisms is made using the identified molecular markers identified here along with markers previously identified in similar studies. Due to their taxonomic specificity, the markers that we have discovered provide useful tools for biochemical tests aiming for an understanding of the unique characteristics of the bacterial groups to which they are specific.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

Les Penicilliums sont des champignons filamenteux appartenant au genre Ascomycota. Ces champignons ont été utilisés par l’homme pour la production de nourriture depuis des siècles. Plus récemment, ils ont aussi été utilisés dans l’industrie biotechnologique pour la production de composés chimiques d’intérêts pharmaceutiques. Certaines espèces de Penicillium sont par ailleurs des moisissures contaminants certains aliments, d’autres sont des pathogènes de plantes, y compris de certains fruits. Leur génomique est globalement peut connue. Dans cette étude, nous avons analysé les génomes de deux espèces nouvellement séquencées, Penicillium roqueforti et Penicillium camemberti. Nous reportons ici le développement d’une nouvelle méthodologie pour l’amélioration et la validation d’assemblage de génomes en utilisant une technologie permettant l’observation de molécules d’ADN unique, le Peignage Moléculaire. En utilisant cette méthode, nous avons amélioré l’assemblage de Penicillium roqueforti. Ce manuscrit décrit aussi de multiples occurrences d’un transfert horizontal d’un ilot génomique de plus de cinq cent kilobases entre plusieurs Penicillium. Ce cas de transfert horizontal indique une fréquence d’échange latéral de matériel génétique plus forte qu’attendue. Enfin nous présentons un inventaire préliminaire du potentiel génomique pour la production de métabolites secondaires dans ces importants Penicillium alimentaires. / Penicillium are filamentous fungi belonging to the Ascomycota genus. Penicillium species have been used by Man for centuries in food making processes. More recently they have also been used in the biotechnology industry for the production of compounds of pharmaceutical interest. Some Penicillium species are food spoilage agents, pathogens of plants including fruits. Aspects of their genomics are largely unknown. In this study, we analysed the genomes of two newly sequenced species, Penicillium roqueforti and Penicillium camemberti. Here we report the development of a new methodology for improving and validating genome assembly using an original single DNA molecule technology, Molecular Combing. Using this methodology we were able to produce a high quality genome assembly of Penicillium roqueforti. This work also reports the multiple and recurrent horizontal transfer of a large genomic island of over half a megabase between several Penicillium species. This horizontal transfer indicates a higher frequency of lateral genetic exchange between cheesemaking fungi than previously expected. Finally, we present an early assessment of the genomic potential for secondary metabolite production in these important food associated penicilliums.

Leptospira is a basal genus in an ancient group of bacteria, the spirochetes. The pathogenic species are responsible for leptospirosis, a disease with worldwide distribution and of public health importance in developed tropical countries. L. interrogans serovar Copenhageni is the agent for the majority of human leptospirosis in Brazil. In this work, we used a great variety of experimental approaches to characterize the SOS system in this serovar, to identify its impact in general DNA damage response, as well as to assess the DNA repair toolbox owned by pathogenic and saprophytic leptospires. We identified an additional repressor LexA, acquired by lateral gene transfer, exclusively in serovar Copenhageni. We also observed that UV-C irradiation led to massive death of cells and blockage of cell division in the survivors. Both repressors were active and we identified the sequences responsible for binding to promoters. However, the LexA1 SOS box was redefined after a de novo motif search on LexA1 ChIP-seq enriched sequences. This regulator was able to bind to at least 25 loci in the genome. DNA damage also caused a massive rearrangement of metabolism: increase in expression was observed in transposon and prophage genes, in addition to DNA repair pathways and mutagenesis inducers; on the other hand, motility, general metabolism and almost all virulence genes were repressed. Two induced prophages provided several proteins with useful functions. We also assessed the DNA repair-related genes presented by the three species of Leptospira: the saprophytic L. biflexa, the facultative pathogen L. interrogans and the obligatory pathogen L. borgpetersenii. There are more diversity and redundancy of repair genes in L. interrogans in comparison with the other species. Lateral gene transfer seems to be an important supplier of DNA repair functions. In addition, leptospires share characteristics of both Gram-positives and Gram-negatives bacteria. Representative genes from several different pathways were induced during infection of susceptible mice kidneys, suggesting DNA repair genes are active while causing disease. All these data suggest mobile genetic elements are the major forces in leptospiral evolution. Moreover, during DNA damage response, several SOS-dependent and independent mechanisms are employed to decrease cell growth and virulence in favor of controlled induction of mechanisms involved in genetic variability. / Leptospira é um gênero basal em um grupo já considerado um dos mais ancestrais, as espiroquetas. As espécies patogênicas são responsáveis pela leptospirose, uma doença presente em todo o mundo e de principal importância em países tropicais em desenvolvimento. L. interrogans sorovar Copenhageni é o agente da maior parte dos casos no Brasil. Nesse trabalho, utilizamos diversas abordagens experimentais para caracterizar o sistema SOS nesse sorovar, identificar seu impacto na resposta geral a danos no DNA, assim como avaliar as funções de reparo de DNA disponíveis em leptospiras patogênicas e saprofíticas. Identificamos um repressor LexA adicional, adquirido por transferência horizontal e exclusivo do sorovar Copenhageni. Observamos também que irradiação por UV-C causou significativa morte celular e bloqueio da divisão celular dos sobreviventes. Ambos os repressores são ativos e identificamos as sequências que utilizam para se ligar aos promotores dos genes regulados. Entretanto, o SOS box de LexA1 foi redefinido após uma busca de novo por motivos enriquecidos nas sequências recuperadas por ChIP-seq. Esse regulador ligou-se ao menos a 25 locais do genoma. A maioria desses alvos teve aumento de expressão após UV-C. Danos no DNA também causaram um importante rearranjo metabólico: houve aumento de expressão em transposons e profagos, além de indutores de mutagênese e vias de reparo; por outro lado, mobilidade, crescimento celular e quase todos os fatores de virulência foram reprimidos. Dois profagos induzidos durante essa resposta, possivelmente proporcionam algumas proteínas de funções importantes. Nós também avaliamos a presença de genes envolvidos no reparo de DNA em três espécies de leptospira: L. biflexa, L. interrogans e L. borgpetersenii. L. interrogans é a espécie com maior diversidade e redundância de genes de reparo. Além disso, transferência horizontal parece ser um importante fornecedor de funções de reparo nesse gênero. Leptospiras também apresentam genes característicos tanto de bactérias Gram-positivas quanto Gram-negativas. Genes representando diferentes vias de reparo foram induzidos durante infecção em modelo animal, sugerindo que essas vias estão ativas no curso da doença. Todos esses dados, em conjunto, sugerem que elementos genéticos móveis são de extrema importância na evolução do gênero e das vias de reparo. Assim, durante a resposta a danos no DNA, diversos mecanismos dependentes e independentes de SOS são empregados para frear o crescimento celular e virulência em favor da indução controlada de mecanismos para aumentar variabilidade genética.

Laterale Gentransfer wurde zuerst von Schwartz und Dayhoff (1978) entdeckt, die es aber als eine Exzentrizität werteten und als solche ignorierten. Später, als mehrere DNS- und Eiweißsequenzen sequenziert und raffiniertere Phylogenien rekonstruiert wurden, hat die Rolle an Relevanz gewonnen, die der laterale (oder horizontale) Gentransfer in der evolutionären Geschichte von lebendigen Organismen gespielt hat. Außerdem existiert auch zwischen Endosymbionten und Zellkernen statt. Ich habe ein theoretisches Modell entwickelt, das den lateralen Gentransfer zwischen Endosymbionten und dem Zellkern repräsentiert. Das Modell erforscht die Bedeutung des Fehlens von Rekombination in den Organellen (Muller’s Ratchet) sowie Abweichungen von Muller’s Ratchet in Form der non-symmetrical homologous recombination in Gentransfermechanismen. Ich habe zum einen Zellkern-Inkompatibilitäten, die aus der Übertragung eines Gens resultieren, und zum anderen Zyto- und Zellkern-Inkompatibilitäten zwischen den mutierten endosymbiotischen Genomen und dem modifizierten Zellenkern untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass unter bestimmten Bedingungen die Existenz oder Nicht-Existenz von Rekombination die gleiche Wirkung haben können. Es zeigte sich auch, dass Rekombination, wenn sie vorkommt und wenn sie nicht symmetrisch ist, starke Auswirkungen auf die Allelenfrequenz einer Population haben kann. Es wurde auch klar, dass es eine starke Beziehung zwischen dem Zellkern und endosymbiotischen Genomen gibt, und dass das evolutionäre Schicksal des einen größtenteils von den evolutionären Kräften abhängig ist, die das andere beeinflussen. Wenn man Zellkern- und Cyto-Zellkerninkompatibilitäten in das Modell einführt, dann zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass die Inkompatibilitäten, die der laterale Gentransfer produziert hat, möglicherweise eine ähnliche Rolle im Speziationsmechanismus spielen könnten wie die Inkompatibilitäten zwischen Mitochondrien und Zellkernen in verschiedenen Nasonia-Arten. / Lateral gene transfer has played a key role in the evolution of living beings. This process was first acknowledged in 1978 by Schwartz and Dayhoff but considered a relatively infrequent eccentricity and ignored. Later on, as DNA and protein sequences accumulated and more refined phylogenies were reconstructed, the contribution of lateral (or horizontal) gene transfer to the evolutionary history of living organisms gained relevance. Besides, gene transfer is known to occur not only between independent organisms but also, and more frequently between endosymbionts including eukaryotic organelles. I developed a theoretical model to study the lateral gene transfer process between cell organelles (but extendible to other endosymbionts) and the cell nucleus. The model explores the role of the lack of recombination in the organelles (Muller''s ratchet) as well as deviations from Muller''s ratchet in the form of non-symmetrical homologous recombination in relation with the gene transfer process. Also, nuclear incompatibilities resulting from the inclusion of a transferred gene, and cyto-nuclear incompatibilities between the mutant endosymbiotic genomes and the modified nuclear genome are investigated. The results obtained show that under certain circumstances the existence recombination or its non-existence produce the same results, and that deviations from symmetry in the recombination process might have important effects on the frequency of different alleles. It is also clear that there is a strong relation between nuclear and endosymbiotic genomes, and that the evolutionary fate of one largely depends on the forces affecting the other. When nuclear and cyto-nuclear incompatibilities are introduced in the model, the results show that lateral gene transfer-induced incompatibilities could potentially play a role in the speciation process similar to the one produced by mitochondria in the Nasonia species.

The diplomonads are a diverse group of eukaryotic microbes found in oxygen limited environments such as the intestine of animals were they may cause severe disease. Among them, the prominent human parasite Giardia intestinalis non-invasively colonizes the small intestine of humans and animals where it induces the gastrointestinal disease giardiasis. Two of the eight genetic groups of G. intestinalis, assemblage A and B, are known to infect humans and have zoonotic potential. At the start of project, genome scale data from assemblage B-H was either sparse or entirely missing. In this thesis, genome sequencing was performed on the assemblage B isolate GS (Paper I) and the P15 isolate (Paper III) of the hoofed-animals specific assemblage E to investigate the underlying components of phenotypic diversity in Giardia. Comparisons to assemblage A isolate WB revealed large genomic differences; entirely different repertoires of surface antigens, genome rearrangements and isolate specific coding sequences of potential bacterial origin. We established that genomic differences are also manifested at the transcriptome level (Paper VIII). In a follow up analysis (Paper IV) we concluded that the Giardia assemblages are largely reproductively isolated. The large genomic differences observed between Giardia isolates can explain the phenotypic diversity of giardiasis. The adaptation of diplomonads was further studied in Spironucleus barkhanus (Paper II), a fish commensal of grayling, that is closely related to the fish pathogen Spironucleus salmonicida, causative agent of systemic spironucleosis in salmonid fish. We identified substantial genomic differences in the form of divergent genome size, primary sequence divergence and evidence of allelic sequence heterozygosity, a feature not seen in S. salmonicida. We devised a transfection system for S. salmonicida (Paper VI) and applied it to the study of the mitochondrial remnant organelle (Paper VII). Our analyses showed that S. salmonicida harbor a hydrogenosome, an organelle with more metabolic capabilities than the mitosome of Giardia. Phylogenetic reconstructions of key hydrogenosomal enzymes showed an ancient origin, indicating a common origin to the hydrogenosome in parabasilids and diplomonads. In conclusion, the thesis has provided important insights into the adaptation of diplomonads in the present and the distant past, revealing hidden diversity.

Le fait d'avoir une généalogie datée des organismes vivants est l'un des principaux objectifs de la biologie évolutive. Cette entreprise est confrontée à deux défis majeurs. Le premier est la rareté et l'incomplétude des enregistrements fossiles, pratiquement inexistants pour les microbes et essentiels pour fournir une échelle temporelle de l'histoire de la vie. Le second est la difficulté intrinsèque d'obtenir des phylogénies d'organismes dont le génome a été largement façonné par transfert latéral de gène (TLG). L'acquisition par transfert de nouveaux gènes d'origine éloignée perturbe des arbres de gènes et rend beaucoup plus complexe la reconstruction de l'histoire des espèces. Dans ce travail de thèse, je montre comment nous pouvons utiliser ces différences entre arbres de gènes et arbres d'espèces à notre avantage pour inférer les événements anciens de TLG et comment ils peuvent fournir une nouvelle échelle de temps pour l'évolution des organismes vivants. Les transferts étant particulièrement fréquents chez les espèces dont les fossiles sont rares, ils peuvent servir de nouvelle source de datation indépendante du registre géologique pour reconstruire une phylogénie datée de la vie. Dans la première partie, je réalise une analyse à l'échelle génomique pour montrer comment les méthodes de réconciliations phylogénétiques peuvent être utilisées pour détecter les lignées correspondant aux donneurs et aux receveurs des événements de TLG. En outre, ces méthodes fournissent également une vue détaillée de la façon dont les familles de gènes évoluent le long des arbres de l'espèce. En utilisant ALE, un logiciel de réconciliation probabiliste qui prend en compte l'incertitude dans les arbres de gènes, nous sommes en mesure de cartographier les événements de duplication, de perte et de transfert dans les phylogénies des cyanobactéries et des champignons. Nous montrons également comment les méthodes qui ignorent l'information contenue dans les arbres de gènes sous-estiment la fréquence réelle des TLG. Dans la deuxième partie, je présente en détail comment le TLG porte un signal temporel et comment ce signal peut être utilisé pour inférer des arbres datés. J'introduis une nouvelle méthode appelée MaxTiC qui permet de trouver un ordonnancement des noeuds dans l'arbre des espèces qui maximise la cohérence temporelle entre les transferts. Par des simulations, nous montrons la robustesse de la méthode aux erreurs présentes dans l'arbre des espèces et le nombre de familles de gènes nécessaires pour obtenir des arbres datés fiables. Enfin, pour confirmer nos résultats, je présente différentes approches permettant de comparer les temps de divergence découlant des transferts avec ceux estimés en utilisant des horloges moléculaires. Nous effectuons une analyse phylogénomique pour détecter des milliers d'événements de TLG dans quatres groupes: les cyanobactéries, les Deltaproteobactéries, les Archées et les Champignons. Nous trouvons un large accord entre les deux méthodes de datation, ce résultat étant robuste à l'utilisation de différentes prior sur les temps de divergence et différents modèles d'horloges moléculaires relâchées. Nous montrons également que certaines des dates indiquées par l'utilisation de TLG sont en désaccord avec les horloges moléculaires tout en étant soutenues par un grand nombre de TLG. Ces résultats suggèrent que l'utilisation des TLG pourrait permettre d'améliorer les méthodes de datation, notamment pour les phylogénies anciennes et ainsi conduire à d'importants changements de notre point de vue sur l'histoire de la vie / Having a dated genealogy of living organisms is one of the major goals of evolutionary biology. This enterprise faces two major challenges. The first one is the scarcity and incompleteness of the fossil record, virtually nonexistent for microbes and essential to provide a time scale of life history. The second one is the intrinsic difficulty of obtaining phylogenies in organisms whose genome has been extensively shaped by Lateral Gene Transfer (LGT). The acquisition of new genes from distant organisms creates important differences among genes trees and complicates the reconstruction of the species history. In this thesis work I show how we can use those differences to our advantage to infer ancient events of LGT and how they provide a temporal scale of evolution. Transfers can supply an important amount of information on divergence times in organisms whose fossils are very scarce, acting as a new dating source independent of the geological record and taking us a step closer to building a whole dated phylogeny of Life. In the first part, I perform genomic-scale analyses to show how phylogenetic reconciliations can be used to detect donor and recipient lineages of LGT events. Moreover, they also provide a detailed view of how gene families evolve along species trees. Using ALE, a probabilistic reconciliation software that accounts for the uncertainty in gene trees, we are able to map events of duplication, loss and transfer in phylogenies of cyanobacteria and fungi. We also show how methods that ignore the information contained in gene trees underestimate the real frequency of LGT. In the second part, I present in detail how LGT carries a temporal signal and how this signal can be used to infer dated trees. I explain a new method called MaxTiC, that finds the best dated tree by maximizing the number of transfers that are time-compatible with a phylogeny. By simulations we show how robust the method is to errors in the species tree and how many gene families are required to obtain reliable dated trees. Finally, to confirm our results I present different metrics to compare the divergence times inferred by transfers with those inferred by molecular clocks. We perform a phylogenomic analysis to detect thousands of LGT events in cyanobacteria, Deltaproteobacteria, Archaea and fungi and obtain their dated phylogenies. We find a broad agreement between both dating methods, a result robust to the use of different priors on divergence times and different models of relaxed molecular clock. We also show that some of the dates inferred by using LGT are not recovered by molecular clocks. These results altogether suggest that the use of LGT in future dating studies may have a big impact on the inferred dates of major evolutionary events and can lead to an important change of our view of the History of Life

Leptospira is a basal genus in an ancient group of bacteria, the spirochetes. The pathogenic species are responsible for leptospirosis, a disease with worldwide distribution and of public health importance in developed tropical countries. L. interrogans serovar Copenhageni is the agent for the majority of human leptospirosis in Brazil. In this work, we used a great variety of experimental approaches to characterize the SOS system in this serovar, to identify its impact in general DNA damage response, as well as to assess the DNA repair toolbox owned by pathogenic and saprophytic leptospires. We identified an additional repressor LexA, acquired by lateral gene transfer, exclusively in serovar Copenhageni. We also observed that UV-C irradiation led to massive death of cells and blockage of cell division in the survivors. Both repressors were active and we identified the sequences responsible for binding to promoters. However, the LexA1 SOS box was redefined after a de novo motif search on LexA1 ChIP-seq enriched sequences. This regulator was able to bind to at least 25 loci in the genome. DNA damage also caused a massive rearrangement of metabolism: increase in expression was observed in transposon and prophage genes, in addition to DNA repair pathways and mutagenesis inducers; on the other hand, motility, general metabolism and almost all virulence genes were repressed. Two induced prophages provided several proteins with useful functions. We also assessed the DNA repair-related genes presented by the three species of Leptospira: the saprophytic L. biflexa, the facultative pathogen L. interrogans and the obligatory pathogen L. borgpetersenii. There are more diversity and redundancy of repair genes in L. interrogans in comparison with the other species. Lateral gene transfer seems to be an important supplier of DNA repair functions. In addition, leptospires share characteristics of both Gram-positives and Gram-negatives bacteria. Representative genes from several different pathways were induced during infection of susceptible mice kidneys, suggesting DNA repair genes are active while causing disease. All these data suggest mobile genetic elements are the major forces in leptospiral evolution. Moreover, during DNA damage response, several SOS-dependent and independent mechanisms are employed to decrease cell growth and virulence in favor of controlled induction of mechanisms involved in genetic variability. / Leptospira é um gênero basal em um grupo já considerado um dos mais ancestrais, as espiroquetas. As espécies patogênicas são responsáveis pela leptospirose, uma doença presente em todo o mundo e de principal importância em países tropicais em desenvolvimento. L. interrogans sorovar Copenhageni é o agente da maior parte dos casos no Brasil. Nesse trabalho, utilizamos diversas abordagens experimentais para caracterizar o sistema SOS nesse sorovar, identificar seu impacto na resposta geral a danos no DNA, assim como avaliar as funções de reparo de DNA disponíveis em leptospiras patogênicas e saprofíticas. Identificamos um repressor LexA adicional, adquirido por transferência horizontal e exclusivo do sorovar Copenhageni. Observamos também que irradiação por UV-C causou significativa morte celular e bloqueio da divisão celular dos sobreviventes. Ambos os repressores são ativos e identificamos as sequências que utilizam para se ligar aos promotores dos genes regulados. Entretanto, o SOS box de LexA1 foi redefinido após uma busca de novo por motivos enriquecidos nas sequências recuperadas por ChIP-seq. Esse regulador ligou-se ao menos a 25 locais do genoma. A maioria desses alvos teve aumento de expressão após UV-C. Danos no DNA também causaram um importante rearranjo metabólico: houve aumento de expressão em transposons e profagos, além de indutores de mutagênese e vias de reparo; por outro lado, mobilidade, crescimento celular e quase todos os fatores de virulência foram reprimidos. Dois profagos induzidos durante essa resposta, possivelmente proporcionam algumas proteínas de funções importantes. Nós também avaliamos a presença de genes envolvidos no reparo de DNA em três espécies de leptospira: L. biflexa, L. interrogans e L. borgpetersenii. L. interrogans é a espécie com maior diversidade e redundância de genes de reparo. Além disso, transferência horizontal parece ser um importante fornecedor de funções de reparo nesse gênero. Leptospiras também apresentam genes característicos tanto de bactérias Gram-positivas quanto Gram-negativas. Genes representando diferentes vias de reparo foram induzidos durante infecção em modelo animal, sugerindo que essas vias estão ativas no curso da doença. Todos esses dados, em conjunto, sugerem que elementos genéticos móveis são de extrema importância na evolução do gênero e das vias de reparo. Assim, durante a resposta a danos no DNA, diversos mecanismos dependentes e independentes de SOS são empregados para frear o crescimento celular e virulência em favor da indução controlada de mecanismos para aumentar variabilidade genética.