Solar photovoltaic (PV) generation has been gaining popularity as low carbon energy technology in the face of the global climate change. However, conventional utility-scale PV requires large swaths of land to be occupied for decades which prevents the land from producing food or performing vital ecosystem services. Co-location of PV with crop cultivation is an emerging strategy for mitigating the land use of PV. In order to optimize this strategy, the impact of the plant growth-related soil properties need to be quantified. To this end, the first portion of the thesis investigated the impacts on the soil properties in a re-vegetated solar PV facility in Boulder, Colorado, which was the oldest vegetation-PV co-location site in the world. The second portion of the thesis uses a life cycle analysis (LCA) approach to test the feasibility of co-location of model crop cultivation and solar PV electricity generation in rural Indonesia, and it is the first study to use the LCA study of the co-located solar in the tropics. The first approach revealed that the soil hydrology, grain size distribution, and total carbon and nitrogen are significantly altered from their original state by the construction and presence of photovoltaic arrays, and that those properties had not been restored to their pre-construction levels despite the fact that ten years had passed since re-vegetation of the PV array. The persistence of the altered soil properties meant that the designs regarding re-vegetation or co-location of PV with crops would have to be considered at the beginning of the construction of the PV to minimize the impact on the soil and the existing vegetation. Furthermore, soil moisture was the highest in the soil underneath the western edge of the PV panels, where the western tilt of the PV panel had concentrated the rainfall. The heterogeneity in soil hydrology created by the panels could be manipulated to benefit the growth of vegetation within the PV array. The LCA approach revealed that a hectare of PV arrays with full module density would carbon offsets against diesel electricity generation and the grid, and that the annual supply of electricity from the PV could satisfy the demand of a typical rural Indonesian village several times over. However, the high capital expenditure of solar mean that co-location with full PV module density would not be economically feasible, even with the income stream from the co-located crop cultivation. In order to reduce the capital expenditure, the PV module density for co-location was reduced to half. The combination of reduced capital expenditure and the income stream from the crop made the co-located land use significantly less costly. Additionally, the rural electrification would be able to provide secondary socioeconomic benefits such as avoidance of health costs through operation of public health infrastructures, increased standard of living, and secondary income opportunities from processing of raw materials. However, better subsidies for renewables, specialized loan structures for small-scale renewable systems, and a culture of co-operation between small landholders would need to be implemented before the co-located system becomes affordable to the inhabitants in rural Indonesian villages. / Geology

Packaging sustainability has become one of the most notable issues of this era. Many researchers have endeavored to characterize or compare the environmental burdens of a single level of packaging, such as primary, secondary, or tertiary packaging. However, goods are often handled, stored, and transported through the supply chain system in unit load form consisting of pallets, corrugated boxes, and load stabilizers. Hence, it is important to holistically understand the environmental impact of not only individual packaging levels, but also the unit load form. We can use the interactions between the unit load components to reduce the environmental burdens generated in the supply chain system. Past studies discovered that pallet top deck thickness has a huge effect on corrugated box compression strength. Using this knowledge, researchers were able to optimize the cost of unit loads by increasing pallet top deck thickness and reducing the board grade of corrugated boxes. This study (1) further discovered how different unit load design factors, such as initial top deck thickness, pallet wood species, box size, and board grade, affect the performance of the previously proposed unit load design optimization method, and (2) we investigated if the unit load optimization method could also enhance unit load sustainability. The study's first phase identified that the benefits of increasing top deck thickness were more pronounced as the initial top deck thickness decreased, higher board grade boxes were initially utilized, and smaller-sized boxes were used. The second phase of this study showed that increasing top deck thickness and reducing the board grade of corrugated boxes could offset environmental impacts by as much as 23%. Environmental benefits were mostly achieved by reducing the amount of relatively more-processed materials in the corrugated boards. This phase also provided preliminary unit load conditions as guidance for unit load professionals to estimate the possibility of optimizing their unit load design in an environmentally beneficial way. / Master of Science / Sustainability-minded individuals, industries, and policymakers recently recognized the environmental burdens associated with packaging as a critical concern to society. Many initiatives and studies have been conducted to prevent and reduce the environmental impacts of individual packaging systems, such as corrugated boxes, plastic bottles, and pallets. However, not many efforts have been made to enhance the environmental performance of a whole unit load, which is the most common distribution packaging form used to transport and store goods. It is essential to understand the physical interactions between unit load components, such as corrugated boxes and pallets, in order to improve a unit load's environmental performance effectively. The unit load optimization concept introduced in the past study, which showed that increasing top deck thickness can reduce the needed board grade of corrugated boxes, was further investigated and utilized in this study to offset the environmental burdens of a unit load by substituting different materials used. To assess the environmental performance of that unit load design optimization method, this study first endeavored to understand further how various unit load design factors could affect the result of unit load optimization, and second, we analyzed many different scenarios using a life cycle analysis method. The study found that the unit load design method that uses deck board thickness to change the amount of corrugated board needed had more potential for lighter pallets with thinner deck boards carrying heavier loads. The results also showed that increasing top deck board thickness and reducing the board grade of the corrugated board could improve the environmental performance of a unit load when the corrugated material is sufficiently substituted with a reasonable amount of pallet material.

The life cycle analysis compares the environmental impacts of catalytic converters and the effects of not using these devices. To environmentally evaluate the catalytic converter, the emissions during extraction, processing, use of the product are considered. All relevant materials and energy supplies are evaluated for the catalytic converter. The goal of this life cycle is to compare the pollutants of a car with and without a catalytic converter. Pollutants examined are carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbons (HC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). The main finding is that even considering materials and processing, a catalytic converter decreases the CO, HC and NOx pollutant emissions. The CO2 emissions are increased with a catalytic converter, but this increase is small relative to the overall CO2 emissions. The majority of catalytic converter pollutants are caused by the use phase, not extraction or processing. The life cycle analysis indicates that a catalytic converter decreases damage to human health by almost half, and the ecosystem quality damage is decreased by more than half. There is no damage to resources without a converter, as there are no materials or energy required; the damages with a converter are so small that they are not a significant factor. Overall, catalytic converters can be seen as worthwhile environmental products when considering short term effects like human health effects of smog, which are their design intent. If broader environmental perspectives that include climate change are considered, then the benefits depend on the weighting of these different environmental impacts. / Master of Science

With rising awareness that future generations may not have access to the resources and quality of life that exist today, sustainable development has become a priority within civil engineering. One important component of sustainable development is environmental stewardship, which concerns both the resources taken from the environment, and the wastes and byproducts emitted to the environment. To facilitate more sustainable development, environmental accounting is necessary within civil and geotechnical engineering design and construction. Historically, geotechnical practice has focused on maximizing design performance while minimizing monetary costs, and well established methods exist for quantifying these factors. Quantitative consideration of environmental consequences has seldom played a large role in geotechnical design and construction, and clear guidelines and a methodology for such an assessment are not available within the geotechnical profession. Therefore, this research has focused on establishing a method for quantitative streamlined environmental Life Cycle Analysis of energy and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions for geotechnical ground improvement works, known as the Streamlined Energy and Emissions Assessment Model (SEEAM). The boundaries for the SEEAM extend from raw material extraction through the completion of construction, including the energy and CO2 emissions associated with construction materials, construction site operations, and the transportation of construction materials and wastes. The methodology relies on energy and CO2 emissions coefficients, which represent typical industry average values and not necessarily the specific processes contributing to a project. Therefore, there is uncertainty in SEEAM analyses, which is addressed via a Monte Carlo simulation framework that assumes the energy and CO2 emissions coefficients each follow a lognormal distribution. Data sets of total energy and CO2 emissions generated by the Monte Carlo simulation framework with the SEEAM may be used to statistically compare the energy and CO2 emissions of different geotechnical design alternatives. Such comparisons can help facilitate designing for minimum environmental consequences, thus advancing sustainable development within geotechnical engineering. For clarity, the development and application of the SEEAM is illustrated using two different geotechnical case history projects, including rehabilitation of levee LPV 111 in New Orleans, LA, and the construction of foundations for a replacement dormitory on the Virginia Tech campus. / Ph. D.

Trends such as globalization, increased customer demands and the increased sustainability challenge are forcing medium sized manufacturers to rethink their production processes and start developing lean and sustainable production systems.Many of the developed tools and methods for the lean and sustainable production presented in the literature are not well suited for medium sized manufacturers with a lack of empirical case studies, and therefore investigating suitable approaches for improving the production and sustainability performances is needed in their case. This thesis proposes to use a mixture of tools from both the Lean and sustainable development literature for creating a lean and sustainable production roadmap for medium sized manufacturers. It demonstrates a case study conducted at a medium sized roller blind manufacturer who is preparing to introduce lean and enhancing their sustainability at the production to cope with the condensed market and their customer requirements. The study analyzes the manufacturing processes from both the lean and sustainability perspectives, where different tools were adopted and used throughout the work, which are: Value Stream Mapping, Sustainable Life Cycle Assessment, and Sustainability Compliance index, with the data collected through interviews, dialogues, observations, time studies and internal documents. Understanding the company specific problems and value acted as a foundation for further analysis and improvement potentials identification to reach a future lean and sustainable state in the production, which resulted in enhancing the firm´s lean and sustainability performances. This thesis complement the lean initiatives with a sustainability assessment effort to grasp the whole picture and generate ultimate improvement potentials in order to cope with today´s evolving trends and the increased sustainability requirements. A main contribution is the developed guidelines for creating a lean and sustainable production roadmap for medium sized manufacturers, which result in leveraged benefits satisfying both the lean and sustainable needs. / Trender såsom ökad globalisering, nya kundkrav och ökade utmaningar inom hållbarhet, leder till att medelstora tillverkningsföretag tvingas att tänka om gällande produktionsprocesser och börja utveckla koncept inom lean och hållbar produktion.Många av de utvecklade verktygen och metoderna inom lean och hållbar produktion, som återfinns i litteraturen, är inte väl lämpade för medelstora tillverkningsföretag och saknar empiriska fallstudier. Detta motiverar till vidare analys kring lämpliga metoder för att öka prestationen inom produktion och hållbarhet för dessa företag. Denna uppsats går igenom de olika verktyg som finns definierade i litteraturen, både ifrån lean och hållbarhetsutveckling, och föreslår en väg framåt för att skapa en optimerad och hållbar produktion för medelstora tillverkningsföretag.Denna uppsats demonstrerar en fallstudie utförd på en medelstor rullgardinstillverkare som är beredd att introducera lean och öka deras hållbarhetsperspektiv i produktionen. Detta för möta den mättade marknaden och deras kundkrav. Studien analyser tillverkningsprocesserna från både lean och hållbarhetsperspektiv, där olika verktyg har blivit anpassade och testade under hela processen (Value Stream Mapping, Sustainable Life Cycle Assessment och Sustainability Compliance index). Uppgifterna som använts har samlats in genom intervjuer, dialoger, observationer, tidsstudier och intern dokumentation. Förståelse av företagets specifika problem gav en grund för vidare analys, där förbättringspotentialer identifierades för att nå ett framtida lean och hållbarhetsperspektiv i produktionen. Uppsatsens resultat bidrog till reella förbättringar för företaget inom området. Denna uppsats drar slutsatsen att komplettering utav lean initiativ med hållbarhetsutvärdering är nödvändigt för att få fram en helhetsbild kring en optimal förbättringspotential. På så sätt kan företagen bättre klara av dagens nya trender med ökade hållbarhetskrav. De utvecklade riktlinjerna för att skapa en lean och hållbar produktion i ett medelstort tillverkningsföretag resulterar i fördelar som uppfyller kraven både från ett lean och i hållbarhetssynpunkt.

L'objectif de ces travaux vise à évaluer les performances techniques et environnementales d'un procédé de fractionnement et de purification d'hémicelluloses de pailles et sons de blé. La démarche employée consiste dans un premier temps à évaluer la faisabilité du procédé à une échelle pilote. Celui-ci implique notamment une opération de fractionnement par extrusion bi-vis et des étapes de concentration-purification par une combinaison d'ultrafiltration et de chromatographie sur résine. Il est comparé à un procédé plus classique où l'extrait extrudé subit une évaporation et une précipitation éthanolique. L'étude des compositions chimiques des extraits et des poudres produites à chaque étape du procédé permet d'observer que l'extrusion bi-vis donne des rendements plus faibles que d'autres techniques d'extraction, mais présente des avantages en termes d'échelle, de continuité du procédé, et de faibles consommations d'eau. Par ailleurs, l'ultrafiltration est une technique intéressante car elle permet une purification et une concentration des extraits simultanées et la chromatographie sur résine s'est avérée être une solution attractive pour la décoloration des extraits. Dans un second temps, la méthodologie d'analyse du cycle de vie (ACV) a été appliquée au procédé. Celle-ci a mis en avant le fort impact environnemental généré par certaines opérations unitaires et a donné lieu à l'identification de priorités d'actions pour l'amélioration du procédé. Ainsi, le scénario mettant en jeu une combinaison de l'ultrafiltration avec une chromatographie sur résine semble plus avantageux que celui mettant en jeu une évaporation sous vide combinée à une précipitation éthanolique. La démarche employée apporte également des réponses méthodologiques sur la démarche d'ACV appliquée aux procédés : l'importance de prendre en compte différentes méthodes de caractérisation, de tester la sensibilité de l'étude à l'unité fonctionnelle et aux hypothèses initiales ont été mises en avant. Enfin, dans le but de démontrer sa forte potentialité dans le domaine des procédés, l'ACV a été appliquée à certaines opérations unitaires. L'intérêt d'étudier l'influence des conditions opératoires des procédés sur les impacts environnementaux a été démontré. Par ailleurs, la nécessité de développer des outils de modélisation des procédés qui pourront être couplés à ceux de l'ACV afin d'intégrer pleinement les critères environnementaux au dimensionnement des procédés a été mis en avant. / The objective of this work was to evaluate the technical and environmental performance of a fractionation and purification process of hemicelluloses from wheat straw and bran. The approach used was first to assess the feasibility of the process on a pilot scale. This implied setting up twin-screw extrusion, concentration steps by ultrafiltration and a purification step by ion exchange chromatography. It was compared to a more traditional process where the extruded extract was treated by evaporation and ethanol precipitation. Study of the chemical composition of extracts and powders produced at each stage of the process, showed that the twin-screw extrusion gave lower yields than other extraction techniques, but had the advantage in terms of scale, continuity of the process and low water consumption. Furthermore, ultrafiltration is an interesting technique because it allows simultaneous purification and concentration of the extracts, and ion exchange chromatography proved to be an attractive solution for the removal of coloured compounds. In a second step, the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was applied to the process. This highlighted the strong environmental impact generated by some unit operations, and resulted in the identification of priorities to improve the process. Thus, the scenario involving a combination of ultrafiltration with ion exchange chromatography appears to be more advantageous than that involving vacuum evaporation combined with ethanol precipitation. The approach used also provides methodological answers for LCA applied to processes: the importance of taking into account different characterization methods, testing the sensitivity of the study to the functional unit, and reconsidering the initial assumptions, has been stressed. Finally, in order to demonstrate its high potential in the field of processes, LCA has been applied to some unit operations. The interest of studying the influence of process operating conditions on environmental impacts has been demonstrated. In addition, the need to develop tools for modelling processes that can be coupled to those of LCA in order to fully integrate environmental criteria into process design, has been highlighted.

<div>Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) has been defined as a method to assess the total cost of a project. It is a simple tool to use when a single project has different alternatives that fulfill the original requirements. Different alternatives could differ in initial investment, operational and maintenance costs among other long term costs. The cost involved in building a bridge depends upon many different factors. Moreover, long-term cost needs to be considered to estimate the true overall cost of the project and determine its life-cycle cost. Without watchful consideration of the long-term costs and full life cycle costing, current investment decisions that look attractive could result in a waste of economic resources in the future. This research is focused on short and medium span bridges (between 30-ft and 130-ft) which represents 65\% of the NBI INDIANA bridge inventory. </div><div><br></div><div>Bridges are categorized in three different groups of span ranges. Different superstructure types are considered for both concrete and steel options. Types considered include: bulb tees, AASHTO prestressed beams, slab bridges, prestressed concrete box beams, steel beams, steel girders, folded plate girders and simply supported steel beams for dead load and continuous for live load (SDCL). A design plan composed of simply supported bridges and continuous spans arrangements was carried out. Analysis for short and medium span bridges in Indiana based on LCCA is presented for different span ranges and span configurations. </div><div><br></div><div>Deterministic and stochastic analysis were done for all the span ranges considered. Monte Carlo Simulations (MCS) were used and the categorization of the different superstructure alternatives was done based on stochastic dominance. First, second, almost first and almost second stochastic dominance rules were used to determined the efficient set for each span length and all span configurations. Cost-effective life cycle cost profiles for each superstructure type were proposed. Additionally, the top three cost-effective alternatives for superstructure types depending on the span length are presented as well as the optimum superstructure types set for both simply supported and continuous beams. Results will help designers to consider the most cost-effective bridge solution for new projects, resulting in cost savings for agencies involved.</div>

Three different green technologies are compared in terms of net energy and carbon savings for a theoretical Toronto rooftop. Embodied energy values are calculated through Life Cycle Analysis and compared to the estimated energies produced and/or saved by each technology. Results show that solar photovoltaics displace the most carbon per m2 of roof space and solar thermal (for hot water) displaces the most energy. An in-depth analysis of an intensive green roof for growing food indicates that the high embodied energy of the materials is not quickly repaid by the sum of six energy savings that were examined (direct and indirect cooling, run-off treatment, transport of food, on-farm energy use, and activities that would otherwise be carried out). However, the energy and carbon benefits are not insignificant, but depend strongly on various assumptions. The methodology used is replicable and therefore useful for other locations.

Three different green technologies are compared in terms of net energy and carbon savings for a theoretical Toronto rooftop. Embodied energy values are calculated through Life Cycle Analysis and compared to the estimated energies produced and/or saved by each technology. Results show that solar photovoltaics displace the most carbon per m2 of roof space and solar thermal (for hot water) displaces the most energy. An in-depth analysis of an intensive green roof for growing food indicates that the high embodied energy of the materials is not quickly repaid by the sum of six energy savings that were examined (direct and indirect cooling, run-off treatment, transport of food, on-farm energy use, and activities that would otherwise be carried out). However, the energy and carbon benefits are not insignificant, but depend strongly on various assumptions. The methodology used is replicable and therefore useful for other locations.

This thesis presents a detailed study of life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity during the uranium mining-milling phase of the nuclear fuel cycle for three paired uranium mine-mill operations in northern Saskatchewan (SK). The study period runs from 2006 – 2013 for two of the three pairs, and from 1995-2010 for the third. The life cycle analysis has been conducted based on the ISO 14040:2006 standard using a Process Chain Analysis methodology. This study differs from previous studies of GHG emissions intensity during the uranium mining-milling phase of the nuclear fuel cycle in two key respects. First, it has a very large system boundary which includes the uranium exploration and mine-mill decommissioning phases. Second, it utilizes a life cycle inventory database to include many processes which would normally fall outside of the system boundary due to their small individual contributions. These differences contribute to a more accurate result. The production-weighted average life cycle GHG emissions intensity is estimated as 45 kg CO2e/kg U3O8 at an average ore grade of 9.12% U3O8 based on relative U3O8 production volumes at Mine-Mill A, B, and C from 2006 to 2010. The 95% confidence interval for the production-weighted average result ranges from 42 to 49 kg CO2e/kg U3O8, indicating that overall uncertainty in the result is low. Life cycle GHG emission intensity for the three uranium mine-mill pairs are 84, 66, and 35 kg CO2e/kg U3O8 at average ore grades of 0.71%, 1.54%, and 11.5% U3O8 respectively. Nearly 90% of life cycle GHG emissions are associated with operation of the uranium mine-mills, primarily from energy consumption during operation (69% of total) transport of materials and personnel (7.0%), and use of reagents (5.6%). Remaining processes each individually account for less than 5% of the total. In calculating emissions from electricity consumption, the base-case emission intensities reported above use a province-wide electricity emission factor because the utility does not differentiate its emissions by region. However, the facilities included in this study are all located in Northern Saskatchewan, which is powered exclusively by hydropower. Application of a regional emission factor reduces the production-weighted average life cycle GHG emission intensity to 26 kg CO2e/kg U3O8 with a 95% confidence interval of 25 to 29 kg CO2e/kg U3O8. This represents a 42% reduction in life cycle GHG emission intensity from the base case. Due to the high uranium ore grades found in SK uranium deposits, life cycle GHG emissions intensity for uranium from SK is among the lowest in the world. Further, the life cycle GHG emission intensity estimate from uranium mining-milling in SK is a small (approximately 10%) contributor to the life cycle GHG emissions intensity from the nuclear fuel cycle for light water reactors overall, amounting to approximately 1.2 g CO2e/kWh electricity (0.6 g CO2e/kWh electricity calculated using the regional hydroelectric power source).