This thesis links papers reporting field measurements, modelling studies and reviews of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and their abatement from agriculture, in particular from livestock production. The aims of the work were to: quantify GHG emissions from litter-based farmyard manures; evaluate means by which GHG emissions from agricultural production may be abated; assess synergies and conflicts between the abatement of other N pollutants on emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O); analyse two records of soil temperature from 1976-2010 from Wolverhampton (UK) and Vienna (Austria). Agricultural emissions of GHGs are not readily abated by ‘end of pipe’ technologies. Large decreases in agricultural GHG emissions may require changes in the production and consumption of food that could have unwelcome impacts on both consumers and producers. However, identifying and prioritizing both modes and locations of production, together with utilizing inputs, such as N fertilizer and livestock feeds, more efficiently can reduce GHG emissions while maintaining outputs. For example, GHG emissions from livestock production may be lessened by increasing the longevity of dairy cows, thereby decreasing the proportion of unproductive replacement animals in the dairy herd. Sourcing a larger proportion of calves from the dairy herd would decrease emissions of GHGs from beef production. The distance between the region of food production to that of consumption has relatively little impact on total GHG emissions per tonne of food product. Due to greater productivity or lesser energy inputs, importing some foods produced in other parts of the world may decrease GHG emissions per tonne compared with UK production, despite the additional emissions arising from long-distance transport. Manure application techniques to abate ammonia (NH3) emissions do not axiomatically increase emissions of N2O and may decrease them. Soil temperature measurements from 1976 to 2010 were consistent with the warming trends reported over the last 40 years.

La méthanisation émerge comme une technique efficace pour la production énergétique ainsi que le traitement des résidus organiques. Une analyse de la méthanisation dans les différentes filières sélectionnées est menée par une démarche reposant sur la définition de filières-type, renseignées à partir d'enquêtes techniques auprès des installations existantes et des professionnels. Ces filières-type nous permettent d’étudier globalement les bilans énergétiques et environnementaux de la digestion anaérobie pour la comparer avec d’autres procédés en utilisant l’approche par analyse du cycle de vie. Énergétiquement, un potentiel important de plus de 11 Mtep/an est estimé à partir des ressources disponibles dans les filières retenues. Les ressources agricoles contribuent à une part importante de ce potentiel. Les déchets résiduaires des industries agroalimentaires complètent ce potentiel sachant que la quantité des déchets méthanisables est importante sur le territoire français. Environnementalement, le biogaz valorisé procure un avantage à la méthanisation devant la filière de comparaison. Les résultats des études comparatives d’ACV sont sensibles à la méthode d’analyse d’impact retenue par rapport à leur sensibilité à certains aspects. Les résultats d’ACV sont aussi sensibles à la définition des filières et alors définir d’autres filières lorsque des interrogations subsistent est une perspective importante à ne pas négliger. / Anaerobic digestion is emerging as an efficient technology for energy production as well as for of organic residues treatment. An analysis of the anaerobic digestion in different chosen procedures is led by an approach based on the standard procedures definition, filled from technical investigations with existing installations and professionals. These standard procedures allow us to study the overall energy and environmental balance sheets of anaerobic digestion in order to compare it with other processes by using the approach of life cycle assessment. Energetically, an important potential for more than 11 Mtoe/year is estimated from available resources in chosen procedures. Agricultural resources contribute to a significant portion of this potential. The residual waste from food industries completes this potential knowing that the amount of waste processed with anaerobic digestion is important on the french territory. Environmentally, the biogas recovered is advantageous to anaerobic digestion against comparison procedures. The results of comparative studies of LCA are sensitives to the impact assessment method adopted in relation to their sensitivity to certain aspects. The LCA results are also sensitives to the definition of procedures and define other procedures, when we have doubts, remains an important perspective not to be neglected.

Millions of people in the world, particularly women and people in sub-Saharan Africa, suffer from hunger and poverty. Three of the major 2015-2030 United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to eliminate hunger through food security and sustainable agriculture, eradicate poverty, and achieve gender equality through women’s empowerment. Shea trees and their associated fruit and butter can play a major role in each of these three SDGs for women and their families throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Shea trees are located over a wide expanse stretching more than 5,000 kilometers across over eighteen countries in sub-Saharan Africa. These trees produce fruit that encase a kernel within a nut from which shea butter can be extracted. Shea butter production is unique in that it is predominately controlled by women and they utilize the profits they earn from selling the nuts or butter for items to support their families such as purchasing grain for depleted stores during the hungry season and paying for children’s school fees or clothing. Shea butter is also cited as a sustainable oil compared to other world oils such as peanut, palm, soybean, or cocoa butter which require heavy land use land change and fertilization while shea trees often grow in existing fields or fallows without fertilization, application of pesticides, or clear cutting of forests. However, shea butter production is still human and material energy intensive, requiring substantial amounts of firewood to heat and dry the shea nuts and the shea tree distribution and associated shea butter production and role in African livelihoods is under threat from the increasing effects of globalization and climate change. Thus, this dissertation fills in important research gaps in the existing literature on shea (Vitellaria paradox and nilotica) and sustainable development by developing and implementing methods to model food security, energy, and climate and cultural impacts of a process using shea butter production as a case study. To begin, the first comprehensive shea tree land suitability model to estimate potential shea production and amount of women collectors was created using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) that combined eight parameters: land use, temperature, precipitation, elevation, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), soil-type and soil-drainage. Even under conservative estimates, the model produced an extensive shea tree suitability area of 3.4 million square kilometers with 1.8 billion trees in 23 countries and over 18 million women collectors, encompassing a total population of 112 million. Next, this dissertation improved the global application of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), a tool used to measure the entire environmental impacts of a process from extraction of materials through end-of-life stages, by utilizing a hybrid-LCA methodology that incorporated human energy and embodied energy and emissions from firewood of five traditional and improved shea butter production processes common throughout West Africa. When the LCA results of shea butter production were compared to other LCA studies of world oils, shea butter performed better in abiotic depletion and human toxicity impact categories as well as global warming potential when indirect land use land change was considered. Nevertheless, a large amount of human and firewood embodied energy and emissions were involved in shea butter production. However, mechanization of certain production steps was found to significantly reduce human energy without increasing total embodied energy. Furthermore, improved cookstoves modeled in this dissertation could reduce global warming potential, human toxicity, and embodied energy by 77-78%, 15-83%, and 52% respectively. These results would not have been captured in traditional LCA methodology and this was the first study to compare process-based and economic input-output LCAs in a developing country with very different reliance on and accessibility to resources than developed countries. Finally, an in-depth ethnographic study was conducted in this dissertation, combining qualitative and quantitative methods to better understand the importance of shea butter to African’s livelihoods in the context of food security and climate change. Shea butter was found to have a vital role in the maintenance and development of social bonds between female friends and family as well as an integral role in all religious and traditional ceremonies including a special shea ceremony. Additionally, 93% of survey respondents agreed there has been a decrease in shea fruit yields during their life time, 80% of which believed this was attributed to decreased rainfall. Moreover, 83% of 181 shea trees sampled were found to have an invasive vine species, drying out and/or have large worms. Therefore, recommendations derived from this dissertation for development agencies, governments and industry include further research on and promotion of: parkland management, preservation, and regeneration as well as reduction in the amount of human energy and firewood in shea butter production by providing better access of women collectors to mechanization, improved cookstoves, and transportation (i.e. donkey carts and bicycles) for harvesting shea fruit. Overall the research developed in this dissertation contributed significantly to the existing literature on shea and developed methods and a framework that has applications for achievement of the UN’s SDGs for 2030 particularly to obtain food security.

Decision makers are challenged by complex sustainability problems within the socio-ecological system. In response, a vast range of sustainability-related methods/tools have been developed, each focusing on certain aspects of this challenge. Without a unifying theory it is, however, unclear how these methods/tools can support strategic progress towards sustainability and how they relate to each other. This need for clarity and structure urged some sustainability pioneers to start develop an overarching framework for strategic sustainable development (SSD), often called “The Natural Step (TNS) framework”, from the NGO that has facilitated its development and application, or the “backcasting from sustainability principles (BSP) framework” from its main operational philosophy. The aim of this thesis is to study if, and in that case how, this framework can aid coordination and further development of various sustainability-related methods/tools, specifically to increase their capacity to support sustainable product development (SPD). Life-cycle assessment (LCA), “templates” for SPD and systems modeling and simulation (SMS) are the methods/tools in focus. A new strategic life-cycle management approach is presented, in which the main sustainability aspects, LCA “impacts”, are identified through socioecological sustainability principles. This creates new opportunities to avoid the reductionism that often follows from traditional system boundaries or from a focus on specific impacts. Ideas of how this approach can inform the studied tools are given. This may eventually lead to a whole integrated toolbox for SPD (a “Design Space”). As part of such a Design Space, a new “template” approach for SPD is developed. A case study of a sustainability assessment of TVs at the Matsushita Electric Group indicates that this approach can create a quick overview of critical sustainability aspects in the early part of the product development process and facilitate communication of this overview between top management, product developers, and other stakeholders. A potential integration between BSP and SMS is also discussed. It is suggested that this should start with BSP to create lists of critical presentday flows and practices, ideas of long term solutions and visions, and a first rough idea about prioritized early investments. After that, SMS should be applied to study the interrelationships between the listed items, in order to create more robust and refined analyses of the problems at hand, possible solutions and investment paths, while constantly coupling back to the sustainability principles and guidelines of the BSP framework. v Decision makers seem to need more of an overview and of simplicity around sustainability issues. A general conclusion is, however, that it is important that this is achieved without a loss of relevant aspects and their interrelations. Over-simplifications might lead to sub-optimized designs and investments paths. Combining the BSP framework with more detailed methods/tools seems to be a promising approach to finding the right balance and to get synergies between various methods/tools.

The purpose of this research is to examine how The Natural Step Framework, combined with Life Cycle Assessment and Ecological Footprint could help to manage the sustainability challenges of construction materials in China and to consider how these tools and concepts might inform each other in combination. Based on a literature review regarding the current reality of building materials in China and industry experience with use of existing sustainability concepts and tools, we build a conceptual model to integrate the three above concepts and attempt to analyse how they could work better together in the management of a sustainable transition. We then analyse the likely strengths and limitations of such an integrated model and finally use this to inform a vision of a sustainable future for building materials, discussing how the model may help China move towards sustainability.

There is an increased awareness of the textile dyeing and finishing sector’s high impact on the environment due to high water consumption, polluted wastewater, and inefficient use of energy. To reduce environmental impacts, researchers propose the use of dyes from natural sources. The purpose of using these is to impart new attributes to textiles without compromising on environmental sustainability. The attributes given to the textile can be color and/or other characteristics. A drawback however, is that the use of bio-sourced dyes is not free from environmental concerns. Thus, it becomes paramount to assess the environmental impacts from using them and improve the environmental profile, but studies on this topic are generally absent. The research presented in this thesis has included environmental impact assessment, using the life cycle assessment (LCA) tool, in the design process of a multifunctional polyester (PET) fabric using natural anthraquinones. By doing so an eco-design approach has been applied, with the intention to pave the way towards eco-sustainable bio-functionalization of textiles. The anthraquinones were obtained from the root extracts of the madder plant (Rubia tinctorum L.), referred to as madder dye. The research questions were therefore formulated related to the use of madder dye. Three research questions have been answered: (I) Can madder dye serve as a multifunctional species onto a PET woven fabric? (II) How does the environmental profile of the dyeing process of PET with madder dye look like, and how can it be improved? (III) What are the main challenges in using LCA to assess the environmental impacts of textile dyeing with plant-based dyes? It is concluded that there is a potential for the madder dye to serve as a multifunctional species onto PET. Based on the encouraging result, a recommendation for future work would be to focus on the durability of the functionalities presented and their improvement potential, both in exhaustion dyeing and pad-dyeing. LCA driven process optimization of the exhaustion dyeing enabled improvement in every impact category studied. However, several challenges have been identified which need to be overcome for the LCA to contribute to the sustainable use of multifunctional plant-based species in textile dyeing. The main challenges are the lack of available data at the research stage and the interdisciplinary nature of the research arena. It is envisaged that if these challenges are addressed, LCA can contribute towards sustainable bio-functionalization of textiles. / Le secteur de la teinture et de l’ennoblissement textile est de plus en plus conscient de son impact sur l’environnement dû principalement à la consommation élevée de l’eau et à sa pollution, et aux pertes d’énergie. Pour réduire ces impacts, les chercheurs proposent l’utilisation de molécules issues de ressources naturelles, pour traiter les textiles en limitant les impacts sur l’environnement. C’est le cas pour l’obtention de textiles colorés ou pour l’attribution de toute autre fonctionnalité. Cependant, il n’est pas évident que ces molécules bio-sourcées n’aient aucun impact sur l’environnement. On comprend l’importance d’évaluer les impacts de leur utilisation et d’améliorer leur profil environnemental. Or ce type d’étude est peu présent dans la littérature. La recherche présentée dans cette thèse comporte l’évaluation des impacts environnementaux en utilisant l’outil d’analyse du cycle de vie (ACV) pour la conception du traitement d’un tissu de polyester (PET) multifonctionnel avec des anthraquinones naturelles. La méthodologie d’éco conception que nous avons appliquée ouvre la voie à une bio-fonctionnalisation des textiles plus respectueuse de l’environnement. Les anthraquinones ont été obtenues par extraction des racines de plantes de garance et constituent le colorant appelé garance. Les trois questions principales abordées lors de ce travail de recherche sont formulées autour de l’utilisation de la garance : (I) Peut-on traiter les tissus de PET avec de la garance pour obtenir des propriétés multifonctionnelles ? (II) Quel est le profil environnemental du procédé de teinture du PET par la garance et comment l’améliorer ? (III) Quels sont les principaux challenges pour l’utilisation de l’ACV dans l’évaluation environnementale du traitement des textiles par des colorants naturels? Nous avons montré que la garance peut être utilisée pour conférer des propriétés multifonctionnelles au PET. Ensuite, nous avons pu orienter notre étude pour améliorer la durabilité des traitements par les procédés de fonctionnalisation à la fois par épuisement ou par foulardage. En s’appuyant sur l’ACV, l’optimisation de la teinture que nous avons réalisée réduit tous les impacts sur l’environnement. Cette étude nous permet d’identifier les challenges qui doivent être surmontés pour que l’ACV puisse contribuer à l’utilisation de bio-molécules pour la teinture des textiles dans le respect des principes de développement durable. Ils concernent le manque de données pour ces travaux de recherche et leur nature interdisciplinaire. Ainsi, en résolvant ces questions, on peut envisager aboutir à une bio- fonctionnalisation des textiles respectueuse de l’environnement. / Den höga miljöpåverkan från textilfärgning och efterbehandling, på grund av hög vattenförbrukning, dess förorening, och ineffektiv användning av energi, är idag välkänt. För att minska miljöpåverkan föreslår forskningsvärlden användning av färgämnen från naturliga resurser. Syftet med att använda dessa är att ge nya attribut till textilier utan att göra avkall på miljömässig hållbarhet. Attribut som ges kan vara färg och/eller andra egenskaper. En nackdel är dock att användningen av bio-baserade färgämnen är inte fri från att belasta miljön. Det blir därför av största betydelse att bedöma denna miljöpåverkan och förbättra miljöprofilen. Sådana studier är dock i allmänhet sällsynta. Studien som presenteras i denna avhandling har inkluderat miljöpåverkans- bedömning, med hjälp av livscykelanalys (LCA), i designprocessen av en multifunktionell polyester (PET) väv via naturliga antrakinoner. Genom att göra så har ett eko-design tillvägagångssätt använts, med avsikt att bana väg för miljömässigt hållbar bio-funktionalisering av textil. Antrakinonerna erhölls från rot extrakt av växten krapp (Rubia tinctorum L.), och hänvisas till som krapp färgämne. Frågeställningar var därför formulerade relaterat till användningen av krapp färgämne. Tre forskningsfrågor har besvarats: (I) Kan krapp färgämne verka multifunktionellt på en PET väv? (II) Hur ser miljöprofilen ut, från färgningsprocessen av PET med krapp färgämne, och hur kan den förbättras? (III) Vilka är de största utmaningarna med att använda LCA för att bedöma miljökonsekvenserna av textilfärgning med växtbaserade färgämnen? Det kan konkluderas att det finns potential för krapp färgämne att verka multifunktionellt på PET. Baserat på uppmuntrande resultat är en rekommendation för det framtida arbetet att fokusera på kvalitén hos de attribut som presenterats och deras förbättringspotential, både i färgning via färgbad och via foulard. LCA driven processoptimering av textilfärgningen förbättrade i varje miljöpåverkans- kategori som studerats. Emellertid har flera utmaningar identifierats som måste  övervinnas för att LCA skall kunna bidra till en hållbar användning av multifunktionella växtbaserade färgämnen för textil. De största utmaningarna är bristen på tillgängliga data i forskningsstadiet och den tvärvetenskapliga forskningsarenan. Det är tänkt att om dessa utmaningar bemästras kan LCA bidra till en hållbar bio-funktionalisering av textil. / <p>Disputationen kan följas via länk i sal U401b, Textilhögskolan, Högskolan i Borås</p> / Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctorate program: Sustainable Management and Design for Textiles

Diffuse water pollution in urban areas is growing due to polluted runoffs. Therefore, there is a need to treat this kind of pollution. Different structural treatment practices can be used for these purposes. However, little is known about their environmental, economic and social impacts. Therefore, the aim of this study has been to develop an integrated methodology for sustainability evaluation of structural treatment practices, considering environmental, economic and social aspects. Both environmental and economic evaluations have been carried out on a life cycle basis, using life cycle assessment and life cycle costing, respectively. For social evaluation, a number of social indicators, identified and developed in this research, have been used. The methodology has been applied to the case of the Magdalena river catchment in Mexico City. Three structural treatment practices have been analysed: bio-retention unit, infiltration trench and porous pavement. Based on the assumptions and the results from this work, the bio-retention unit appears to be environmentally the most sustainable option for treatment of diffuse water pollution. It is also the second-best option for social sustainability, slightly behind the porous pavement. However, if the costs of treatment are the priority, then the porous pavement would be the cheapest option. If all the sustainability aspects evaluated here are considered of equal importance, then the bio-retention unit is the most sustainable option. Therefore, trade-offs between the different sustainability aspects are important and should be considered carefully before any decisions are made on diffuse water pollution treatment. This also includes the trade-offs with the additional life cycle impacts generated by the treatment options compared to the impacts from the untreated runoff. The decisions can only be made by the appropriate stakeholders; however, some recommendations are given, based on the outcomes of this research.

Packaging has been on the environmental agenda for decades. It has been discussed and debated within the society mainly as an environmental problem. Production, distribution and consumption of food and drinks contribute significant to the environmental impact. However, consumers in the EU waste about 20% of the food they buy. The function of packaging in reducing the amount of food losses is an important but often neglected environmental issue. This thesis focuses on the functions of packaging that can be used to preserve resources efficiently and reduce the environmental impact of the food-packaging system. The service perspective is used to increase knowledge about consumer interaction with packages. Fifteen packaging attributes, for example, ‘easy to empty’, ‘hygienic’ and ‘contain the right quantity’, were identified as influencing the amount of food losses at the consumer. The result showed that there are potentials to both increase consumer satisfaction and decrease the environmental impact of the food-packaging system, when new packaging design reduces food losses. A model was developed that calculates the balance of environmental impact between reduction of food losses, and more packaging material. The result showed that it can be environmentally motivated to increase the environmental impact of packaging, if the amount of food losses is reduced. This is especially true for food items with high environmental impact, e.g. meat and dairy products, and for food items that have a high share of loss, e.g. bread. I have also explored to what extent packaging can influence food losses in households. The study showed that about 20% to 25% of household food waste was related to packaging. The households noted three packaging attributes as the main causes for food losses; ‘too big packaging’, ‘difficult to empty’ and ‘best-before-date’. Finally there is a discussion of packaging research in the context of sustainability principles, and suggestions for further research. / <p>Paper IV was still a manuscript at the time of the thesis defense.</p>

Environmentally conscious construction has received a significant amount of research attention during the last decades. Even though construction literature is rich in studies that emphasize the importance of environmental impact during the construction phase, most of the previous studies failed to combine environmental analysis with other project performance criteria in construction. This is mainly because most of the studies have overlooked the multi-objective nature of construction projects. In order to achieve environmentally conscious construction, multi-objectives and their relationships need to be successfully analyzed in the complex construction environment. The complex construction system is composed of changing project conditions that have an impact on the relationship between time, cost and environmental impact (TCEI) of construction operations. Yet, this impact is still unknown by construction professionals. Studying this impact is vital to fulfill multiple project objectives and achieve environmentally conscious construction. This research proposes an analytical framework to analyze the impact of changing project conditions on the relationship of TCEI. This study includes green house gas (GHG) emissions as an environmental impact category. The methodology utilizes multi-agent systems, multi-objective optimization, analytical network process, and system dynamics tools to study the relationships of TCEI and support decision-making under the influence of project conditions. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is applied to the evaluation of environmental impact in terms of GHG. The mixed method approach allowed for the collection and analysis of qualitative and quantitative data. Structured interviews of professionals in the highway construction field were conducted to gain their perspectives in decision-making under the influence of certain project conditions, while the quantitative data were collected from the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) for highway resurfacing projects. The data collected were used to test the framework. The framework yielded statistically significant results in simulating project conditions and optimizing TCEI. The results showed that the change in project conditions had a significant impact on the TCEI optimal solutions. The correlation between TCEI suggested that they affected each other positively, but in different strengths. The findings of the study will assist contractors to visualize the impact of their decision on the relationship of TCEI.

Ces dernières années, les législations dans le domaine du textile et de l’environnement se sont multipliées. Au niveau européen, les directive IPPC , REACH, ont obligé les industriels Européens à prendre en compte les aspects environnementaux de leurs produits et services. En France, suite au Grenelle de l’environnement, de nouvelles obligations apparaissent concernant les déchets textiles ou l’affichage environnemental (Grenelle environnement 2011). Parallèlement, une prise de conscience internationale de la nécessité de concevoir des produits limitant l’utilisation de ressources non renouvelables et diminuant leur impact environnemental, est apparue. L’éco conception implique la mise en oeuvre de nouvelles matières et de nouveaux procédés. L’ACV, analyse du cycle de vie est un outil qui permet l’évaluation des impacts environnementaux. Cette thèse a été lancée par Bureau Veritas CODDE et le laboratoire GEMTEX, suite à l’identification d’un besoin significatif de développement de données et méthodologies ACV pour le secteur du textile. En effet, les méthodologies et les outils existants ne sont pas adaptés à l’évaluation de l’impact environnemental des produits textiles car le secteur présente des caractéristiques spécifiques contraignantes. Ces outils doivent permettre autant aux concepteurs, qu’aux fabricants et distributeurs de réaliser des ACV à des niveaux de granulométrie différents. / In recent years, the European textile industry and textiles imports have had to comply with an increasing number of environmental policies. Emissions from industrial installations have been subject to EU-wide legislation for over 10 years: the IPPC Directive, the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR)… Since 2007, European textile producers also have to comply with a substantial number of obligations under REACH. Furthermore, in France environmental labelling for certain convenience goods (including textile products) might become mandatory in 2020. In parallel, national awareness appeared on the necessity of designing consumer products with limited use of natural resources and decreased the environmental impacts. Eco-design involves the implementation of new materials and new processes. Life Cycle Assessment, LCA, is a tool that enables the assessment of environmental impacts. This thesis was initiated by Bureau Veritas CODDE Company and the GEMTEX laboratory, following on the identification of a significant need for the development of LCA data and methods in the textile sector. This is because the existing methods and tools are not suitable for the environmental impact assessment of textile products since the textile sector presents specific constraining characteristics. These tools should enable designers, manufacturers and retailers to perform LCA on their products.