The presented doctoral thesis is focused on environmental impact assessment of basic engineering materials used in a production machine construction. Ecological profile of the machine itself develops already in the phase of its design. It is not only about the choice of future machine parameters and materials that it is built from, but also about technologies used for its manufacture and operation conditions of the finished machine (consumption of energy and service fluids). The thesis occupies in detail with environmental impact analysis of the production machine design from the viewpoint of material production that mentioned machine consists of. The output from the performed analysis is methodology for evaluating of machine design from the viewpoint of greenhouse gas emissions. Created methodology enables evaluating of machine ecological profile and its possible adjustments even during pre-production stage. In the first part of the thesis the analysis of current legislation in the field of fighting against climate changes, reducing of products energy consumption and increasing of production machines energy efficiency is presented. Also in this part of the thesis description of methods that were used to achieve thesis goals is stated. Furthermore analysis of production machine as a system of structural components that fulfil the certain functions and description of used basic engineering materials are presented. The second part of the thesis is devoted to environmental impact analysis of the production machine design process. There the design process and environmental impact of machine design are described. This is followed by description of production machine life cycle and detailed analysis of undesirable substances emissions emitted during pre-production phases of machine life cycle (i.e. during the raw materials extraction and materials production). From this analysis the particular constituents’ pre-production phases which are sources of undesirable substances emissions (e.g. greenhouse gas emissions) were derived. The thesis also includes analysis of these constituents’ life cycles and description of electric power generation as a basic constituent of any phase of product life cycle. In this part of the thesis calculations of particular fuel type’s amounts that is required to produce 1 MWh of electric power and carbon dioxide amount produced during electric power generation are presented. The third part of the thesis contains created models of manufacturing processes of basic engineering materials and calculations of related emissions of selected greenhouse gases. The practical output from this part of the thesis is methodology that enables environmental impact assessment of machine design from the viewpoint of engineering materials used in its construction.

A Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida é uma das principais técnicas de avaliação ambiental de bens e serviços e pode ser classificada em duas abordagens: atribucional e consequencial. A atribucional, caracterizada pelo uso de dados médios de ICV e de alocação de coprodutos, tem como objetivo a avaliação dos impactos ambientais de um produto do berço ao túmulo, em um sistema estático. A ACV consequencial consiste na avaliação das consequências ambientais em um sistema dinâmico, orientado por mudanças. Esta abordagem vem sendo intensamente discutida na literatura internacional, porém, no Brasil ainda se trata de um tema pouco explorado. O presente trabalho visa aprofundar a discussão entre as duas abordagens da ACV. Para isso, utilizaram-se os seguintes procedimentos metodológicos: revisão da literatura e aplicação das abordagens ao biocombustível etanol hidratado de cana-de-açúcar. Os resultados apontam que a ACV atribucional apresentou maiores cargas ambientais em todas as categorias de impacto, com principalmente nas categorias de Ecotoxicidade Aquática, Ecotoxicidade Terrestre e Depleção Abiótica. Isto se deve à subtração das cargas ambientais referentes aos produtos evitados, considerados na análise devido à expansão do sistema realizada na abordagem consequencial com a finalidade de evitar a alocação que, por sua vez, foi utilizada na abordagem atribucional. Notou-se que, em teoria, a principal diferença entre as abordagens da ACV consiste em seus distintos alinhamentos quanto à aplicação pretendida, sendo a atribucional voltada ao conhecimento dos impactos ambientais do ciclo de vida de um produto e identificação de pontos críticos no sistema, e a abordagem consequencial voltada à identificação das consequências ambientais geradas por uma mudança no sistema de produto investigado. Na prática, entretanto, foram encontradas algumas limitações que comprometeram a operacionalização do estudo consequencial, distanciando-a do seu propósito teórico. Dentre estas limitações merecem destaque: o grande número de simplificações intrínsecas ao método aplicado e a falta de transparência quanto à base de dados de background utilizada. Notou-se que a operacionalização da ACV consequencial é bastante complexa, pois despende muito tempo e recursos, principalmente na coleta e validação de informações de mercado. Portanto, reforça-se a necessidade de esforços no sentido do desenvolvimento de métodos menos subjetivos e mais sistemáticos para a abordagem consequencial além de diretrizes mais esclarecedoras explicitando as diferenças quanto ao conteúdo, contextos e formas de aplicação das abordagens atribucional e consequencial da ACV e indicando em quais situações elas podem ser complementares. / Life Cycle Assessment is one of the most used tool to asses environmental impact of goods and services. It can be classified into two approaches: attributional and consequential.Attributional LCA, characterized by the use of average data ICV and coproducts allocation is aimed at assessing the environmental impacts of a product from the cradle to the grave, in a static system. The consequential LCA is the evaluation of the environmental consequences in a dynamic system driven by changes. Both approaches have been intensively discussed in the literature in recent years, but in Brazil it is still a little discussed and explored topic. Thus, this study aims to deepen the discussion between the two LCA approaches. For this, the following methodological procedures are used: literature review and application of the approaches on hydrated bioethanol from sugarcane. The results show that the attributional LCA has higher environmental burdens in all impact categories, with greater difference with consequential in the categories of aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity and abiotic depletion. This is due to the subtraction of environmental charges related to avoided products, considered at the time of system expansion in consequential approach, which did not occur in attributional (where co- products were treated by means of allocation). The main differences between the approaches reflect their different alignments on the intended application, the attributional approach is mostly focused on the knowledge of the environmental impacts of the life cycle of a product and identification of improvement points to the system, while the consequential approach aims to verify potential environmental consequences generated by the change in product system investigated. In practice, however, it was observed that the consequential LCA results should be interpreted with great caution due to the fact that the application has brought a large number of limitations, such as: great number of simplifications of the method applied, consideration of standard assumptions when the lack of information for the collection of data and lack of transparency as to the basis of background data used. Moreover, its implementation is still quite complex, requiring much time and resources to collect data and market information. Therefore, we reinforce what has already been established through the literature review: efforts are needed towards the development of less subjective methods and more systematic for consequential approach as well as more enlightening guidelines explaining the differences in the content, context and application forms of attributional and consequential LCA approaches.

A Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida é uma das principais técnicas de avaliação ambiental de bens e serviços e pode ser classificada em duas abordagens: atribucional e consequencial. A atribucional, caracterizada pelo uso de dados médios de ICV e de alocação de coprodutos, tem como objetivo a avaliação dos impactos ambientais de um produto do berço ao túmulo, em um sistema estático. A ACV consequencial consiste na avaliação das consequências ambientais em um sistema dinâmico, orientado por mudanças. Esta abordagem vem sendo intensamente discutida na literatura internacional, porém, no Brasil ainda se trata de um tema pouco explorado. O presente trabalho visa aprofundar a discussão entre as duas abordagens da ACV. Para isso, utilizaram-se os seguintes procedimentos metodológicos: revisão da literatura e aplicação das abordagens ao biocombustível etanol hidratado de cana-de-açúcar. Os resultados apontam que a ACV atribucional apresentou maiores cargas ambientais em todas as categorias de impacto, com principalmente nas categorias de Ecotoxicidade Aquática, Ecotoxicidade Terrestre e Depleção Abiótica. Isto se deve à subtração das cargas ambientais referentes aos produtos evitados, considerados na análise devido à expansão do sistema realizada na abordagem consequencial com a finalidade de evitar a alocação que, por sua vez, foi utilizada na abordagem atribucional. Notou-se que, em teoria, a principal diferença entre as abordagens da ACV consiste em seus distintos alinhamentos quanto à aplicação pretendida, sendo a atribucional voltada ao conhecimento dos impactos ambientais do ciclo de vida de um produto e identificação de pontos críticos no sistema, e a abordagem consequencial voltada à identificação das consequências ambientais geradas por uma mudança no sistema de produto investigado. Na prática, entretanto, foram encontradas algumas limitações que comprometeram a operacionalização do estudo consequencial, distanciando-a do seu propósito teórico. Dentre estas limitações merecem destaque: o grande número de simplificações intrínsecas ao método aplicado e a falta de transparência quanto à base de dados de background utilizada. Notou-se que a operacionalização da ACV consequencial é bastante complexa, pois despende muito tempo e recursos, principalmente na coleta e validação de informações de mercado. Portanto, reforça-se a necessidade de esforços no sentido do desenvolvimento de métodos menos subjetivos e mais sistemáticos para a abordagem consequencial além de diretrizes mais esclarecedoras explicitando as diferenças quanto ao conteúdo, contextos e formas de aplicação das abordagens atribucional e consequencial da ACV e indicando em quais situações elas podem ser complementares. / Life Cycle Assessment is one of the most used tool to asses environmental impact of goods and services. It can be classified into two approaches: attributional and consequential.Attributional LCA, characterized by the use of average data ICV and coproducts allocation is aimed at assessing the environmental impacts of a product from the cradle to the grave, in a static system. The consequential LCA is the evaluation of the environmental consequences in a dynamic system driven by changes. Both approaches have been intensively discussed in the literature in recent years, but in Brazil it is still a little discussed and explored topic. Thus, this study aims to deepen the discussion between the two LCA approaches. For this, the following methodological procedures are used: literature review and application of the approaches on hydrated bioethanol from sugarcane. The results show that the attributional LCA has higher environmental burdens in all impact categories, with greater difference with consequential in the categories of aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity and abiotic depletion. This is due to the subtraction of environmental charges related to avoided products, considered at the time of system expansion in consequential approach, which did not occur in attributional (where co- products were treated by means of allocation). The main differences between the approaches reflect their different alignments on the intended application, the attributional approach is mostly focused on the knowledge of the environmental impacts of the life cycle of a product and identification of improvement points to the system, while the consequential approach aims to verify potential environmental consequences generated by the change in product system investigated. In practice, however, it was observed that the consequential LCA results should be interpreted with great caution due to the fact that the application has brought a large number of limitations, such as: great number of simplifications of the method applied, consideration of standard assumptions when the lack of information for the collection of data and lack of transparency as to the basis of background data used. Moreover, its implementation is still quite complex, requiring much time and resources to collect data and market information. Therefore, we reinforce what has already been established through the literature review: efforts are needed towards the development of less subjective methods and more systematic for consequential approach as well as more enlightening guidelines explaining the differences in the content, context and application forms of attributional and consequential LCA approaches.

Syfte: En betydande del av Sveriges totala växthusgaser kommer ifrån bygg- och fastighetssektorn. Då livscykelperspektivet är ett högaktuellt ämne är det intressant att implementera LCA i bygg- och fastighetsbranschen och genomföra en analys på de isoleringsmaterial som anses vara de traditionella inom branschen. För att resultatet av LCA ska vara applicerbart för företag i branschen är det också av intresse att veta hur LCC skiljer sig mellan de jämförda isoleringsmaterialen. För att resultatet ska vara lätt att identifiera är en sammanställning av kostnad i kontrast till koldioxidutsläpp av intresse. Målet med studien är att bidra med kunskap om olika isoleringsmaterials miljöpåverkan utifrån ett livscykelperspektiv. Likaså att se hur stor skillnad det blir i kostnad mellan isoleringsmaterial med mer eller mindre koldioxidutsläpp, där en förutsättning är att U-värdet är detsamma för de jämförda materialen. Metod: De vetenskapliga metoderna för studien har varit litteraturstudie, fallstudie och dokumentanalys. Som komplement till dessa har beräkningar, livscykelanalyser och livscykelkostnadsanalyser genomförts. Resultat: Lösull av cellulosa minskar koldioxidutsläppet för isoleringen i vindsbjälklag med 94,6 procent till en kostnadsökning motsvarande 30 procent jämfört med stenull. En skiva av cellulosa minskar koldioxidutsläppet för isoleringen i yttervägg med 94,4 procent till en kostnadsökning motsvarande 7 procent jämfört med stenull. En bottenplatta av cellglas minskar koldioxidutsläppen med 65,1 procent till en kostnadsökning motsvarande 55,2 procent jämfört med en bottenplatta av cellplast och betong. Konsekvenser: • Isolering av cellulosa har ett betydligt lägre koldioxidutsläpp än stenull. • Livscykelkostnad för cellulosa är något högre än för stenull. • Utifrån denna studie rekommenderas att prioritera miljö framför kostnad och därför använda cellulosa som isolering i byggnader. • Cellglas är ett miljömässigt hållbart alternativ till cellplast och betong vid grundläggning. • Cellglas har en högre livscykelkostnad än cellplast och betong vid grundläggning. • Utifrån denna studie rekommenderas att prioritera miljö framför kostnad och därför överväga att använda cellglas vid grundläggning av byggnader. Begränsningar: Undersökningen har inte tagit hänsyn till transporter av material. Livscykelanalyserna är gjorda på 1 m2 material med en bestämd tjocklek. Endast två isoleringsalternativ per byggnadsdel har jämförts och hänsyn till materialens fukt-, ljud och brandegenskaper har inte beaktats. Studien är kvantitativ. / Purpose: A big part of the greenhouse gases from Sweden comes from the construction and real estate sector. Since the life cycle perspective is a high currant subject it is interesting to implement LCA to the building industry and perform such an analysis on the insulation materials that are traditionally used in the building industry. To make the result of the LCA applicable for companies in the industry it is also of interest to know how the LCC differs between the compared insulation materials. For the result to be easy to identify it is necessary to make a compilation of the cost in contrast to the carbon dioxide emissions. The goal of this study is to contribute with knowledge about the environmental impact from a life cycle perspective of different insulation materials. As well to see how the cost might change between different insulation materials with more or less carbon dioxide emissions, where a presumption is that the U-value is the same for the compared materials. Method: The scientific methods for the study have been literature study, case study and document analysis. As a complement, calculations, life cycle assessments and life cycle cost analysis have been made. Findings: Loose fill insulation of cellulose reduces the carbon dioxide emissions for insulation in the attic with 94,6 percent to a cost increase of 30 percent compared to stone wool. A board of cellulose reduces the carbon dioxide emissions for insulation in the external wall with 94,4 percent to a cost increase of 7 percent compared to stone wool. A foundation with foamglas reduces the carbon dioxide emissions with 65,1 percent to a cost increase of 55,2 percent compared to a foundation of EPS and concrete. Implications: • Insulation of cellulose have much lower carbon dioxide emissions than stone wool. • Life cycle cost for cellulose are a bit higher than for stone wool. • From this study the recommendation is to prioritize the environment above the cost and therefor use cellulose as insulation in buildings. • Foamglas is a more sustainable alternative to EPS and concrete for foundations. • Foamglas have a higher life cycle cost than EPS and concrete for foundations. • From this study the recommendation is to prioritize the environment above the cost and therefore consider to use foamglas for foundations. Limitations: The study has not included transportations of the materials. The life cycle assessments are made on 1 m2 of material with a fixed thickness. Only two insulation materials in each building part have been analyzed and no regards have been taken to the materials moist, sound, and fire attribute. The study is quantitative.

<p>It generally takes 10 to 12 years for a new drug to hit the market. The pharmaceutical industry invests huge sums in these early stages of research and development. In spite of the rapidly rising research and development expenditures fewer and fewer blockbuster drugs are being developed. Longer lead times and aggressive generic post-patent competition have narrowed the timeframe for the pharmaceutical companies to profit on their investments.</p><p>In the face of these threats the pharmaceutical industry has developed a battery of strategies to prolong market exclusivity and to maximize return on investment. These emerging strategies are commonly known as Life cycle management (LCM), which actually is more of a concept than a method. A life cycle is a sequence that stretches all the way from early research and development, through marketing to finally end when the product is withdrawn from the market. By managing the product through these different stages the company can improve the commercial lifespan.</p><p>This thesis analyzes how Life cycle management is implemented in the Swedish pharmaceutical industry. The data is based on interviews from people who are active in the pharmaceutical business. Further, the thesis studies the strategies that AstraZeneca used for their gastrointestinal drugs Losec and Nexium.</p><p>Based on the collected data from the interviews a clear view of the role and involvement of LCM strategies appears. The value and importance of LCM have steadily increased during the last 10 years. LCM is heavily embedded in the decision processes of drugs today. Several strategies such as OTC switching and patent prolongation through pediatric indication application are common practice. The Swedish pharmaceutical industry has a prominent position in the advancement of LCM.</p> / <p>Idag lanseras mindre innovativa nya läkemedel än under 80- och 90-talet. Kostnaderna för att utveckla ett läkemedel har ökat och det tar dessutom längre tid från upptäckt till lansering. Läkemedel har endast en begränsad marknadsexklusivitet som styrs av patentskyddet. Vid patentutgång så utsätts läkemedlet för stenhård konkurrens från aggressiva generika tillverkare. De ställs hårdare krav på forskande farmaceutiska företag för att vara lönsamma i detta klimat.</p><p>Det finns en tydlig trend att läkemedelsföretag har blivit mer beroende av sina storsäljande läkemedel. Ett flertal offensiva strategier har utvecklats för att förlänga lönsamheten hos de mest framgångsrika läkemedlen, t.ex. genom att minska utvecklingstiden, utveckla nya formuleringar och expandera indikationerna. ”Life cycle management” (LCM) är ett samlingsbegrepp på dessa strategier, som används under en produkts livscykel för att förbättra den kommersiella livslängden. Försäljning och marknadsföring för innovativa läkemedel passerar distinkta faser och olika strategier krävs beroende på vilka fas en produkt befinner sig i.</p><p>I denna uppsats analyserar jag hur LCM är implementerat i den svenska läkemedelssektorn. Slutsatserna bygger på data från intervjuer av personer som är sysselsatta inom läkemedelsbranschen. Uppsatsen studerar dessutom de strategier som AstraZeneca har använt för sina två magtarmläkemedel Losec och Nexium.</p><p>Baserat på insamlad intervjudata så framkommer tydligt att LCM är starkt involverat i beslutsprocesserna runt ett läkemedel. Betydelsen av LCM har successivt ökat under de senaste 10 åren. Flera strategier för t.ex. patentförlängning är idag vanligt förekommande. Den svenska läkemedelsbranschen ligger relativt långt fram i denna utveckling.</p>

Wind energy is a promising alternative energy source due to its environmental, economic, and social benefits and, as such, has garnered public support and government incentives for its development and implementation. With the growing number of wind parks in Oregon, a life cycle assessment (LCA) study for a representative new wind park is needed to investigate the potential impacts on the environment. One of the major drawbacks of wind energy generation is its variability due to the stochastic nature of wind. To make wind energy a more reliable source, wind energy generation should be supplemented with controllable energy generation or storage. Thus, the aim of this research is to improve the understanding of the effects of supplemental energy systems on the environmental impacts of wind energy systems. First, the environmental impact of a single wind turbine is examined from raw material extraction to the end of life stage. Research needs are identified to support the assessment of the environmental impacts of wind energy and supplemental energy systems from a life cycle perspective. Next, supplemental electricity generation systems investigated are biomass, hydro, and natural gas electricity generation, and zinc-bromine battery storage. Finally, the results for each system are compared to coal energy generation. It appears that the wind park has lower environmental impact than coal energy generation when paired with any of the complimentary systems investigated. Overall, hydropower appears to be the best option to supplement wind power from an environmental perspective for a potential wind park site in northern Oregon. / Graduation date: 2013

It generally takes 10 to 12 years for a new drug to hit the market. The pharmaceutical industry invests huge sums in these early stages of research and development. In spite of the rapidly rising research and development expenditures fewer and fewer blockbuster drugs are being developed. Longer lead times and aggressive generic post-patent competition have narrowed the timeframe for the pharmaceutical companies to profit on their investments. In the face of these threats the pharmaceutical industry has developed a battery of strategies to prolong market exclusivity and to maximize return on investment. These emerging strategies are commonly known as Life cycle management (LCM), which actually is more of a concept than a method. A life cycle is a sequence that stretches all the way from early research and development, through marketing to finally end when the product is withdrawn from the market. By managing the product through these different stages the company can improve the commercial lifespan. This thesis analyzes how Life cycle management is implemented in the Swedish pharmaceutical industry. The data is based on interviews from people who are active in the pharmaceutical business. Further, the thesis studies the strategies that AstraZeneca used for their gastrointestinal drugs Losec and Nexium. Based on the collected data from the interviews a clear view of the role and involvement of LCM strategies appears. The value and importance of LCM have steadily increased during the last 10 years. LCM is heavily embedded in the decision processes of drugs today. Several strategies such as OTC switching and patent prolongation through pediatric indication application are common practice. The Swedish pharmaceutical industry has a prominent position in the advancement of LCM. / Idag lanseras mindre innovativa nya läkemedel än under 80- och 90-talet. Kostnaderna för att utveckla ett läkemedel har ökat och det tar dessutom längre tid från upptäckt till lansering. Läkemedel har endast en begränsad marknadsexklusivitet som styrs av patentskyddet. Vid patentutgång så utsätts läkemedlet för stenhård konkurrens från aggressiva generika tillverkare. De ställs hårdare krav på forskande farmaceutiska företag för att vara lönsamma i detta klimat. Det finns en tydlig trend att läkemedelsföretag har blivit mer beroende av sina storsäljande läkemedel. Ett flertal offensiva strategier har utvecklats för att förlänga lönsamheten hos de mest framgångsrika läkemedlen, t.ex. genom att minska utvecklingstiden, utveckla nya formuleringar och expandera indikationerna. ”Life cycle management” (LCM) är ett samlingsbegrepp på dessa strategier, som används under en produkts livscykel för att förbättra den kommersiella livslängden. Försäljning och marknadsföring för innovativa läkemedel passerar distinkta faser och olika strategier krävs beroende på vilka fas en produkt befinner sig i. I denna uppsats analyserar jag hur LCM är implementerat i den svenska läkemedelssektorn. Slutsatserna bygger på data från intervjuer av personer som är sysselsatta inom läkemedelsbranschen. Uppsatsen studerar dessutom de strategier som AstraZeneca har använt för sina två magtarmläkemedel Losec och Nexium. Baserat på insamlad intervjudata så framkommer tydligt att LCM är starkt involverat i beslutsprocesserna runt ett läkemedel. Betydelsen av LCM har successivt ökat under de senaste 10 åren. Flera strategier för t.ex. patentförlängning är idag vanligt förekommande. Den svenska läkemedelsbranschen ligger relativt långt fram i denna utveckling.

With the advent of digital imaging technology, the options available to consumers in consumer imaging have increased tremendously. From image capture through image processing and output, many options have emerged; however, the relative environmental impacts of these different options are not clear cut. Simplistically, one might say that the use of a digital camera has a lesser environmental burden than the use of a reloadable film camera because the image produced as a result of using the digital camera avoids chemicals in film developing. However, digital cameras require electronics and computers that need energy; and, energy production is one of the contributors to greenhouse gasses like CO2. Assessment of the environmental impacts of these different options can help provide feedback to decision makers and insights that will help reduce environmental impact through product system design. One tool that has been used to relate environmental impacts with functions provide to consumers through products or services is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). LCA, which has been standardized by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in ISO14000, is used here to evaluate both traditional film and digital imaging systems. Data from publicly available databases and both external and internal Eastman Kodak Company studies were utilized to develop LCA modules for the different processes involved. Product and service business models are explored for both technologies through ten different imaging and output scenarios. The functional unit used is the capture, processing and output of one 4 x6 image. Four impact categories (energy use, greenhouse emission, water use and waste generation) across four life cycle phases (upstream, distribution, use, and end of life) are explored for the ten scenarios. LCA is also evaluated as a tool to help facilitate strategic level environmental performance issues with both new and established business activities. Sensitivity analysis is also performed to evaluate the impact of assumptions made in the course of the assessment and comments are made regarding the effectiveness of LCA for strategic assessment and product service strategies in lowering environmental impact. Results indicate that the lowest impact scenarios are Digital Capture to LCD Display for Greenhouse Emissions and Energy Use and Film Capture to Wholesale Print for Water Use and Waste Generation. Highest impacts were seen for Greenhouse Emissions in the Film Capture to Retail Print scenario. In the Energy Use and Water Use category, the Digital Capture to CRT Computer Display was the highest scenario. For Waste Generation, the Digital Capture to Inkjet Print was the highest impact scenario.

This thesis will investigate the possibility of leasing as a 'greener' form of business transaction. With leasing, the customer pays for the service obtained form the product, but does not own the physical asset; ownership remains with the lessor. This has been claimed to increase resource productivity and close material loops. Numerous complications exist, however, such as tax regulations limiting operating leases to terms of 75% of the total product's life. In addition, no clear pattern has emerged in leasing practices, and in most cases manufacturers approach leasing on an ad hoc basis. Research has found that usage-phase impacts play a major role in determining the advantages realized by leasing. Products such as vehicles or refrigerators that continually consume energy negatively impact the environment much more during their use than during manufacturing or transportation. Because most lease agreements contain maintenance contracts, the opportunity to upgrade and increase product efficiency during this use-phase is paramount to reducing negative impacts. Remanufacturing also shows potential to further reduce resource requirements. However, if product efficiency is not improving significantly, remanufacturing alone does not make a significant impact. In some cases, such as carpets, remanufacturing is not practical, but recycling can be utilized. However, tax regulations require leased terms to be less than that of a product's designed life, hastening replacement. This has the potential to offset any advantages seen with a lease agreement. Academic work in this area remains very limited and product-specific. Case study analyses performed in this thesis found that increased product turnover can actually be environmentally beneficial when product technology is improving. These gains can be further improved with remanufacturing and optimized product replacement moderated by lease agreements. If usage energy is significantly less than manufacturing energy, leasing has little value for reducing impacts. Also leasing may motivate closed material loops, without improving product efficiencies there is no advantage to optimizing life cycles with lease contracts.

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2008. / Directed by Anita Tesh; submitted to the School of Nursing. Title from PDF t.p. (viewed Jan. 28, 2010). Includes bibliographical references (p. 119-130).